Uneven policy implementation in rural China

China Journal

Volumn , Issue 65, 2011, Pages 53-76

  Göbel, Christian ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS; RURAL AREA; RURAL POLICY;

CHINA;

EID: 79551657319     PISSN: 13249347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/tcj.65.25790557     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. See for example John Fitzgerald, Rethinking China's Provinces (London: Routledge, 2002)
2. David S. G. Goodman, China's Provinces in Reform: Class, Community, and Political Culture (London: Routledge, 1997)
3. Christine Wong, Financing Local Government in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1997)
4. Yasheng Huang, Inflation and Investment Controls in China: The Political Economy of Central-Local Relations During the Reform Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)
5. Christine Wong, Christopher John Heady and Wing Thye Woo, Fiscal Management and Economic Reform in the People's Republic of China (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1995)
6. Kenneth Lieberthal, Governing China: From Revolution through Reform (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995).
7. Most notably Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Selective Policy Implementation in Rural China", Comparative Politics, Vol. 31, No. 2 (1999), pp. 167-68, but see also the works by Maria Edin and John James Kennedy cited below.
8. See Linda Chelan Li, Center and Provinces - China 1978-1993: Power as Non-Zero-Sum (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
9. "Towards a Non-Zero-Sum Interactive Framework of Spatial Politics: The Case of Center-Province in Contemporary China", Political Studies, Vol. 45, No. 1 (1997), pp. 49-65.
10. Jae-ho Chung, Central Control and Local Discretion in China: Leadership and Implementation During Post-Mao Decollectivization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). Chung distinguishes between pioneering (central to the non-zero-sum argument), resisting (which fires zero-sum conceptions of policy implementation in China) and bandwagoning (which does not feature in either approach and will not be part of the present analysis).
11. See Christopher Hood, The Art of the State: Culture, Rhetoric, and Public Management (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998).
12. See, for example, Sebastian Heilmann, "Policy Experimentation in China's Economic Rise", Studies in Comparative International Development, Vol. 43, No. 1 (2008), p. 23
13. Graeme Smith, "Political Machinations in a Rural County", The China Journal, No. 62 (July 2009), p. 30.
14. Yang Zhong, Local Government and Politics in China: Challenges from Below (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2003), p. 61.
15. Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Selective Policy Implementation", p. 171.
16. Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Selective Policy Implementation", p. 175-76.
17. Details on the management of government employees and retrenchment attempts can be found in Pierre F. Landry, Decentralized Authoritarianism in China: The Communist Party's Control of Local Elites in the Post-Mao Era (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), Chapter 2
18. John P. Burns, The Chinese Communist Party's Nomenklatura System: A Documentary Study of Party Control of Leadership Selection, 1979-1984 (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1989)
19. Melanie Manion, "The Cadre Management System, Post-Mao: The Appointment, Promotion, Transfer and Removal of Party and State Leaders", The China Quarterly, No. 102 (1985), pp. 203-33.
20. An excellent overview over the features and impacts of this system is found in Maria Edin, "State Capacity and Local Agent Control in China: CCP Cadre Management from a Township Perspective", The China Quarterly, No. 173 (2003), pp. 35-52.
21. Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, "Selective Policy Implementation", p. 174-75.
22. Maria Edin, "State Capacity", p. 36.
23. John James Kennedy, "The Implementation of Village Elections and Tax-for-Fee Reform in Rural Northwest China", in Elizabeth J. Perry and Merle Goldman (eds), Grassroots Political Reform in Contemporary China (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 55.
24. See, for example, Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, Rightful Resistance in Rural China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Chapter 3.
25. Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors: Central and Local Actors in China's Rural Tax Reforms", Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2006), p. 154.
26. Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors: Central and Local Actors in China's Rural Tax Reforms", Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2006), Ibid., p. 153.
27. Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors: Central and Local Actors in China's Rural Tax Reforms", Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 40, No. 1 (2006), Ibid., p. 153., Ibid.
28. Yongnian Zheng, De Facto Federalism in China: Reforms and Dynamics of Central-Local Relations (Hackensack: World Scientific, 2007), Chapter 2.
29. Sebastian Heilmann, "Policy Experimentation", p. 2;
30. see also Sebastian Heilmann, "Maximum Tinkering under Uncertainty: Unorthodox Lessons from China", Modern China, Vol. 35, No. 4 (2009), pp. 450-62.
31. Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors", p. 172.
32. Sebastian Heilmann, "Policy Experimentation", pp. 19-23.
33. Christopher Hood, "Control over Bureaucracy: Cultural Theory and Institutional Variety", Journal of Public Policy, Vol. 15, No. 3 (2006), p. 226.
34. See also Patrick Kenis and Volker Schneider, "Verteilte Kontrolle: Institutionelle Steuerung in Modernen Gesellschaften" (Distributed Control: Institutional Steering in Modern Societies), in Patrick Kenis and Volker Schneider (eds), Organisation und Netzwerk: Institutionelle Steuerung in Wirtschaft und Politik (Organization and Network: Institutional Steering in the Economy and Politics) (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 1996), p. 19.
35. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, p. 77.
36. Manfred G. Schmidt, Wörterbuch zur Politik (Dictionary of Politics) (Stuttgart: Kröner, 2004), p. 300.
37. Burkhard Eberlein and Edgar Grande, "Entscheidungsfindung und Konfliktlösung" (Decision-making and Conflict Resolution), in Klaus Schubert and Nils C. Bandelow (eds), Lehrbuch der Politikfeldanalyse (An Introduction to Policy Analysis) (München: Oldenburg, 2003), p. 178.
38. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, pp. 24-25.
39. John Brehm and Scott Gates, Working, Shirking, and Sabotage: Bureaucratic Responses to a Democratic Public (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
40. John Brehm and Scott Gates, Working, Shirking, and Sabotage: Bureaucratic Responses to a Democratic Public (1997), Ibid., Chapter 2.
41. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, p. 100.
42. Christopher Hood, "Control over Bureaucracy", p. 216.
43. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, pp. 50-51.
44. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, Ibid., pp. 55-60.
45. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, Chapter 6.
46. Christopher Hood, The Art of the State, Ibid., p. 28.
47. Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors," pp. 163-71.
48. Jean Oi, Rural China Takes Off: Institutional Foundations of Economic Reform (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
49. Jae-ho Chung, Central Control and Local Discretion, Chapter 6.
50. Susan H. Whiting, Power and Wealth in Rural China: The Political Economy of Institutional Change (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
51. The resemblance of such target-setting activities to policy implementation during the Great Leap Forward is not lost on observers. As Jonathan Unger points out, the setting and even increasing of unrealistic quotas today bears considerable likeness to policy implementation during the planned economy era. Jonathan Unger, The Transformation of Rural China (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), pp. 197-204.
52. Jae-ho Chung, Central Control and Local Discretion, Chapter 1.
53. Findings presented in Björn Gustafsson, Shi Li and Terry Sicular, Inequality and Public Policy in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 6-9, point towards such an argument.
54. For a good example, see Graeme Smith, "Political Machinations", pp. 52-54.
55. Zhao Shukai, "Xiangzhen gaige: jiantao yu zhanwang" (Township and Town Reforms: Exploration and Prospects), in Wu Xin, Lu Xueyi and Li Peilin (eds), 2005 nian: Zhongguo shehui xingshi fenxi yu yuce (Analysis and Forecast on China's Social Development [2005]) (Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe, 2005), pp. 65-78;
56. Thomas P. Bernstein and Xiaobo Lü, Taxation without Representation in Rural China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003);
57. Jonathan Unger, The Transformation of Rural China, pp. 204-13.
58. Zhang Deyuan, "Wo kan 'nongcun di san ci geming'" (My Viewpoint on "The Third Revolution in the Countryside"), Shehui kexue zhanxian (Social Science Front), Vol. 2003, No. 2 (2003), pp. 167-70.
59. For the intellectual origins of the RTFR, see Linda Chelan Li, "Path Creation? Processes and Networks: How the Chinese Rural Tax Reform Began", Policy and Society, Vol. 25, No. 1 (2006), pp. 61-84
60. He Kaiyin and Sun Li (eds), Zhongguo nongcun shuifei gaige chutan (A First Exploration of the RTFR in China) (Beijing: Zhongguo Zhigong Chubanshe, 2000).
61. Zhonggong zhongyang guowuyuan (Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and State Council), Guanyu jinxing nongcun shuifei gaige shidian gongzuo de tongzhi (Notification Regarding the Advancement of Work in RTFR Experimental Points), 2 March 2000, hereafter Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7.
62. Guowuyuan bangongting (General Office of the State Council), Guanyu zuo hao 2002 nian guangda nongcun shuifei gaige shidian gongzuo de tongzhi (Notification Regarding the Orderly Expansion of the RTFR Experimental Points in 2002), 27 March 2002, (Guobanfa [2002], No. 25).
63. Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7.
64. Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7.
65. Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7, Ibid.
66. Anhui Province, RTFR LSG, Anhui sheng nongcun shuifei gaige qianhou nongmin fudan qingkuang biao (Situation of the Peasant Burden Before and After the RTFR in Anhui Province) (Unpublished government document, 2003).
67. Zhu Shouyin, Zhang Haiyang and Yan Hui, "Nongcun shuifei gaige shidian he xiangcun guanli tizhi gaige genzong yanjiu baogao" (Follow-up Research Report on the RTFR Experimental Spots and the Reform of Rural Administration), Jingji yanjiu cankao (Economic Research Reference), Vol. 2003, No. 40 (2003), pp. 2-24.
68. John James Kennedy, "The Implementation of Village Elections", p. 60.
69. My own calculations based on Anhui Province, RTFR LSG, Anhui sheng nongcun shuifei gaige, Anhui tongji nianjian 2000 (Anhui Statistical Yearbook 2000) (Beijing: Zhongguo Tongji Chubanshe, 2000), table 4-14;
70. Anhui tongji nianjian 2004 (Anhui Statistical Yearbook 2004) (Beijing: Zhongguo Tongji Chubanshe, 2004), tables 4-19 and 8-10.
71. The role of the provinces in this process is analyzed in Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors", pp. 167-71.
72. Loren Brandt, Liu Haomiao, Scott Rozelle and Zhang Linxiu, China - Rural Public Finance: The Township Perspective. Annex 8: World Bank Report. Fiscal Reform and Role of the Township (Washington: World Bank, 2006);
73. Wang Bing and Zhao Yang, "Nongcun shuifei gaige dui zhongxi bu xiangzhen caili yingxiang de shijian yanjiu - jiyu 4 sheng 8 xian chouyang diaocha shuju de fenxi" (Empirical Research on the Fiscal Effects of the RTFR on Central and Western Chinese Townships and Towns), Guanli shijie (World of Management), No. 11 (2006).
74. During the same time, the number of complaint letters decreased from 85,301 to 73,500 (Anhui nianjian 2000 (Anhui Almanac 2000) (Hefei: Anhui Renmin Chubanshe), p. 30;
75. Anhui nianjian 2004, p. 34.
76. John James Kennedy, "From the Tax-for-Fee Reform to the Abolition of Agricultural Taxes: The Impact on Township Governments in North-West China", The China Quarterly, No. 189 (2007), pp. 43-59.
77. There is a large number of descriptive, often fieldwork-based Chinese-language studies on the implementation of the RTFR. As a tendency, these studies agree that the reform has significantly reduced peasant burden. Simultaneously, however, they also tend to confirm the problems mentioned so far. Book-length studies include Zhou Nongjian and Wu Yemao, Shuifei gaige: nongcun zhili moshi de yueqian (The RTFR: The Transformation of Rural Governance) (Beijing: Shehui Kexue Wenxian Chubanshe, 2007);
78. Xiang Jiquan, Zouchu "Huang Zongxi dinglü" de guaiquan: Zhongguo nongcun shuifei gaige de diaocha yu yanjiu (Breaking Through the Vicious Cycle of Huang Zongxi's Law: Investigation and Research of the RTFR in China) (Xi'an: Xibei Daxue Chubanshe, 2004);
79. Ma Xiaohe, Huang Hanquan and Jiang Changyun, Wo guo nongcun shuifei gaige yanjiu (Researching the RTFR in China) (Beijing: Zhongguo Jihua Chubanshe, 2002).
80. Christian Göbel, The Politics of Rural Reform in China: State Policy and Village Predicament in the Early 2000s (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), Chapter 7. John James Kennedy observed the same trend at the township level in Shanxi (John James Kennedy, "From the Tax-for-Fee Reform", pp. 43-59).
81. My own calculation from Anhui tongji nianjian 2000, table 8-05 and Anhui tongji nianjian 2008, tables 7-09 and 7-10. Insights into the bargaining process between the Center and the provinces are found in Linda Chelan Li, "Working for the Peasants? Strategic Interactions and Unintended Consequences in the Chinese Rural Tax Reform", The China Journal, No. 57 (2007), pp. 100-05.
82. My own calculation from Zhongguo tongji nianjian (China Statistical Yearbook) (Beijing: Zhongguo Tongji Chubanshe), 2003 (table 5-08), 2004 (table 5-08), 2005 (table 5-08) and 2006 (table 5-08).
83. The senior official quoted above confirmed this figure (Interviews, F County, 14 August and Hefei, 17 August 2004).
84. State Council General Office, Report on the Work of the Government 2005, http://www.gov.cn/english/official/2005-07/29/content-18351.htm (accessed on 12 August 2010).
85. Linda Chelan Li, "Working for the Peasants?", p. 90.
86. Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7.
87. Nevertheless, irregular and small-scale transfer payments had started as early as 2000. That year, the central government transferred 1.1 billion yuan to Anhui, the provincial government added another 100 million yuan (Zhang Ping, Anhui nongcun shuifei gaige shijian yu tansuo [Practice and Exploration of Anhui's RTFR] [Beijing: Dangdai Chubanshe, 2001]).
88. Interview, W County, 8 March 2006.
89. Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing (2000), No. 7.
90. Zhonggong Anhui sheng bangongting, Anhui sheng renmin zhengfu bangongting (Office of the Anhui Provincial Committee of the Communist Party of China, People's Government of Anhui Province), Guanyu yinfa Anhui nongcun shuifei gaige youguan peitao wenjian de tongzhi (About the Printing and Distribution of Supplementary Documents Related to the RTFR in Anhui Province), 29 September 2002, hereafter Wanbanfa, Guanyu yinfa (2000), No. 11.
91. Linda Li describes this as the center's abrogation of its responsibility in the name of decentralization (Linda Chelan Li, "Differentiated Actors", p. 167).
92. Wanbanfa, Guanyu yinfa (2000), No. 11.
93. According to Wu Licai, 83 per cent of the deficit occurred at the township level (Wu Licai, "Nongcun shuifei gaige dui xiangzhen caizheng de yingxiang ji qi houguo: yi Anhui sheng wei li" (The Effects of the RTFR on Township and Town Finances and Their Consequences: Taking Anhui Province as an Example) (2004), http://www.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/wk-wzdetails.asp?id=2114 (accessed on 12 August 2010).
94. Worsening peasant-cadre relations were cited by Li Peijie, the protagonist of the first local RTFR experiment in 1992 (Zhu Anming and Yao Changhui, "Nongcun shuifei gaige shidian yixian zhuizong [yi]" [Tracing the Path of the RTFR Experimental Spots (Part One)], Zhongguo caijing bao [China Finance Bulletin], 13 October 2003) as well as by two leading cadres interviewed by the author in two central Anhui counties in 2004 (He County, 18 August) and 2006 (W County, 8 March).
95. Interview, W County, 8 March 2006.
96. See also Linda Chelan Li, "Path Creation?", p. 77.
97. In the first half of 2000, He County experimented with democratic procedures in raising money for public projects (yi shi yi yi), which was publicly lauded by Wang Taihua, then Party Secretary of Anhui Province (Interview, He County, 18 August 2004).
98. He County's liabilities increased from 67.7 million yuan in 2000 to 81.0 million yuan in 2001 and 87.7 million yuan in 2002. See He xian zhengfu, He xian xiangzhen caizheng guanli fangshi gaige gongzuo qingkuang huibao (Work Status Report for the Township-Level Fiscal Administration Reform in He County) (Unpublished government document, 2004).
99. Chen Guidi and Wu Chuntao, Zhongguo nongmin diaocha (An Inquiry into the Situation of China's Peasants) (Beijing: Renmin Wenxue Chubanshe, 2004), pp. 384-94.
100. Zhonggong Anhui shengwei, Anhui sheng renmin zhengfu (Anhui Provincial Committee of the Communist Party of China, People's Government of Anhui Province), Guanyu biaozhang quan sheng nongcun shuifei gaige shidian gongzuo xianjin danwei he xianjin geren de jueding (Decision Regarding the Commendation of Progressive Units and Individuals in the Provincial RTFR Experimentation Work), 19 March 2003 (Wan [2003], No. 38).
101. There is of course nothing new about enlisting the peasants' help to supervise grass-roots cadres. For example, this was the basic idea behind implementing village elections. See Daniel Kelliher, "The Chinese Debate over Village Self-Government", The China Journal, No. 37 (1997), pp. 63-86.
102. Anhui Province, RTFR LSG, Zhi quan sheng guangda nongmin qunzhong de yi feng xin (Letter Addressing the Peasant Masses of the Whole Province), available online at http://xz4.2000y.net/114005/index.asp?xAction=xReadNews&NewsID= 680, accessed 9 November 2010.
103. Anhui nianjian 2001, p. 31.
104. Anhui nianjian 2001, p. 31., Ibid.
105. Christian Göbel, The Politics of Rural Reform, p. 137.
106. The Gini coefficients of per capita county-level budgetary revenue in Anhui Province almost doubled from 0.134 in 1999 to 0.242 in 2003. The corresponding coefficients for county-level budgetary expenditure increased less drastically from 0.147 to 0.218. It should be noted here that with the abolishment of the agricultural tax, the Gini coefficient for budgetary revenue further increased to 0.379 in 2006. The Gini coefficient for expenditures rose less drastically to 0.233, signifying the prominent role that transfer payments have taken in balancing out revenue inequality (my own calculations based on Anhui Sheng, RTFR LSG, Anhui sheng nongcun shuifei gaige, Anhui tongji nianjian 2000, table 8-05; Anhui tongji nianjian 2004, tables 8-10 and 8-11; and Anhui tongji nianjian 2007, tables 8-10 and 8-11).
107. Christian Göbel, The Politics of Rural Reform, p. 137.
108. Anhui sheng renmin zhengfu, Guanyu jin yi bu luoshi nongcun shuifei gaige zhengce zuo hao wending nongmin fudan gongzuo de jinji tongzhi (Urgent Notification Regarding the Further Implementation of the RTFR Policies and Improving the Stabilization of the Peasant Burden), 31 December 2001 (Wanzhengmingdian [2001], No. 20);
109. Anhui sheng caizhengting (Anhui Provincial Department of Finance), Guanyu zhanting xiang nongmin fentan he shouju jiaqiang guangai nongye xiangmu huandai zijin de jinji tongzhi (Urgent Notification Regarding the Temporary Cessation of Apportioning among and Obtaining Funds from the Peasants for Paying Back Loans Obtained for Improving Rural Irrigation Projects), 20 June 2001 (Caiji [2001], No. 560).
110. Zhang Deyuan, "Shuifei gaige hou de 'bishui xiaoying'" (The "Tax Enforcement Phenomenon" After the RTFR), in Li Changping and Dong Leiming (eds), Shuifei gaige beijing xia de xiangzhen tizhi yanjiu (The RTFR and the Fiscal System at the Township Level) (Wuhan: Hubei Renmin Chubanshe, 2004), pp. 326-30;
111. see also Zhang Deyuan, "'Bi shui' hai zai jixu" (Tax Enforcement Still Continues), Gaige neican (Unpublished government document of Reform Magazine), No. 31 (2003), pp. 20-24.
112. Li Changping, "Nongmin de pinkun: tudi, quanli, ziyou fazhan" (Peasant Poverty: the Development of Land, Power, Freedom), in Zhou Yuan (ed.), Nongmin! Nongmin! (Peasant! Peasant!) (Guangzhou: Huacheng Chubanshe), pp. 4-9.
113. Guowuyuan nongcun shuifei gaige gongzuo xiaozu (State Council RTFR Working Group), Guanyu nongcun shuifei gaige shidian diqu zhanting qingshou nongmin shuifei weiqian gongzuo youguan wenti de jinji tongzhi (Urgent Notification Concerning Questions Regarding the Temporary Cessation of Settling Small Tax and Fee Owings with Farmers in the RTFR Experimental Spots), No. 10 (2002).
114. Zhu Shouyin, Zhang Haiyang and Yan Hui, "Nongcun shuifei gaige shidian", pp. 13-16.
115. Chang Hongxiao, "2005: Zhongguo nongye nongcun nongmin xiandaihua zhi shang" (2005: The Early Death of the Modernization of Agriculture, Villages and Farmers in China), Caijing (Finance), 4 February 2005, http://finance.sina.com.cn/g/20050204/15321349921.shtml (accessed 12 August 2010).
116. "Xiang Huaicheng buzhang zai quanguo nongcun shuifei gaige gongzuo zuotanhui shang de jianghua zhaiyao" (Summary of Minister Xiang Huaicheng's Speech at the Symposium for the Nation-Wide RTFR Work) (Unpublished government document, 2000).
117. Guowuyuan (State Council), Guanyu zuohao 2004 nian shenhua nongcun shuifei gaige shidian gongzuo de tongzhi (Notification Regarding Accomplishing the Intensivation of RTFR Experimental Spot Work in 2004), 21 July 2004 (Guofa [2004], No. 21).
118. Guowuyuan bangongting, Guanyu chengli chenhua nongcun shuifei gaige shidian gongzuo zhidaoxing wenjian qicao xiaozu he zhuanti xiaozu de tongzhi (Notification Regarding the Establishment of Author- and Expert Small Groups for the Drafting of Guiding Documents Related to the Intensification of RTFR Experimental Spot Work), 30 September 2004 (Guobanfa [2004], No. 68).
119. Zhonggong zhongyang guowuyuan, Guanyu tuijin shehui zhuyi xin nongcun jianshe de ruogan yijian (Several Opinions on Promoting the Construction of a New Socialist Countryside) (Zhongfa, Guanyu jinxing [2006], No. 1).
120. Guowuyuan bangongting, Guanyu tongyi guowuyuan nongcun shuifei gaige gongzuo xiaozu ji qi bangongshi bianming de fuhan (Affirmative Reply to the State Council RTFR Working Small Group and its Office Regarding a Change of Names), No. 6 (2006).
121. Anna Ahlers and Gunter Schubert, "Building a New Socialist Countryside", p. 36.
122. Anna Ahlers and Gunter Schubert, "Building a New Socialist Countryside", Ibid, p. 47.
123. John Brehm and Scott Gates, Working, Shirking, and Sabotage, Chapter 2.