The Chinese debate over village self-government

China Journal

Volumn , Issue 37, 1997, Pages 63-86

  Kelliher, Daniel ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 5944254674     PISSN: 13249347     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2950218     Document Type: Article

References (145)

1. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
2. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
3. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
4. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
5. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
6. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
7. Western scholarship includes Tyrene White, 'Reforming the Countryside', Current History, vol.91, no.566 (September 1992), pp.273-7; Kevin J. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.33-59; Susan V. Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no.32 (July 1994), pp.61-68; John Dearlove, 'Village Politics', in Robert Benewick and Paul Wingrove (eds), China in the 1990s (Vancouver: UBC Press, 1995), pp.120-31; Melanie Manion, 'The Electoral Connection in the Chinese Countryside', American Political Science Review, vol.90, no.4 (December 1996), pp.736-48; Jean C. Oi, 'Economic Development, Stability and Democratic Village Self-governance', in Maurice Brosseau, Suzanne Pepper and Tsang Shu-ki (eds), China Review 1996 (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1996), pp. 125-44; and Tianjian Shi, 'Direct Elections in Rural China', mimeo (1996).
8. Article 111 of The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (Promulgated for Implementation on 4 December 1982) (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1983), p.80.
9. For a compilation of Peng's comments on village self-government from 1982 to 1987, see 'Peng Zhen tongzhi guanyu cunmin weiyuanhui jumin weiyuanhui de zhongyao jianghua' [Important Speeches of Comrade Peng Zhen on Villagers' Committees and Residents' Committees], mimeo printed by Minzheng bu jiceng zhengquan jianshe si [Department of Basic-Level Governance, Ministry of Civil Affairs], 1990.
10. Research Group on the System of Village Self-Government in China, China Research Society of Basic-Level Governance, Legal System of Village Committees in China (Draft), printed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs, 10 June 1995, pp. 12-20.
11. Jiang Wandi, 'Grassroots Democracy Taking Root', Beijing Review, vol.39, no.11 (11-17 March 1996), p.14. A handful of localities had elections in 1987. See White, 'Reforming the Countryside', p.277.
12. Jiang Wandi, 'Grassroots Democracy Taking Root', Beijing Review, vol.39, no.11 (11-17 March 1996), p.14. A handful of localities had elections in 1987. See White, 'Reforming the Countryside', p.277.
13. Doje Cering, quoted in Daniel Kwan, 'Plans to Speed Up Grassroots Democracy', South China Morning Post, 21 November 1995. According to Jiang Wandi 'Grassroots Democracy Taking Root' (p.14), 'it is planned by the Ministry of Civil Affairs that substantial and effective elections of villagers' self-government will be adopted in almost all the villages in the country by 2000'.
14. Doje Cering, quoted in Daniel Kwan, 'Plans to Speed Up Grassroots Democracy', South China Morning Post, 21 November 1995. According to Jiang Wandi 'Grassroots Democracy Taking Root' (p.14), 'it is planned by the Ministry of Civil Affairs that substantial and effective elections of villagers' self-government will be adopted in almost all the villages in the country by 2000'.
15. O'Brien, 'Implementing Political Reform in China's Villages', pp.37-8.
16. Wang Shihao, 'Shiying shichang jingji xingshi gaohao xiangzhen he cunweihui jianshe' [Adapt to the Circumstances of the Market Economy and Build Villagers' Committees with Good Relations with Townships and Towns], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 12, p.19.
17. Yan Changzhao, 'Zheige cun shi zenyang you luan dao zhi de' [How this Village Moved from Chaos to Order], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 7, p.38.
18. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe de chulu' [Democratization: The Solution for Village-Level Organization], Difang zhengfu guanli [Local Government Management], 1994: 2, p.51.
19. Liu Jiang, 'Jinyibu jiaqiang nongye de jichu diwei' [Further Strengthen Agriculture's Position as the Foundation], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 10, p.11.
20. Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang de diaocha' [National Survey of the State of Village-Level Organization], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 9, p. 16.
21. Yang Xianbo, 'Jiaqiang cunji zuzhi jianshe, baozheng nongcun zhengling changtong', [Strengthen Village-Level Organization and Ensure Unimpeded Government Orders in the Countryside], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 4, p.3; Xiang Jiquan, 'Nongcun jiceng zhengquan jianshe mianlin de wenti ji shen ceng gaige' [Profound Reform and Problems Facing the Constructiqn of Basic-Level Rural Political Power], Shehuizhuyi yanjiu [Socialist Research], 1993: 2, p.63.
22. Yang Xianbo, 'Jiaqiang cunji zuzhi jianshe, baozheng nongcun zhengling changtong', [Strengthen Village-Level Organization and Ensure Unimpeded Government Orders in the Countryside], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 4, p.3; Xiang Jiquan, 'Nongcun jiceng zhengquan jianshe mianlin de wenti ji shen ceng gaige' [Profound Reform and Problems Facing the Constructiqn of Basic-Level Rural Political Power], Shehuizhuyi yanjiu [Socialist Research], 1993: 2, p.63.
23. Li Ming, 'Jiaqiang dang de jiceng zuzhi jianshe de jige wenti' [Problems in Strengthening Basic-Level Party Organization], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1994: 5, p.18.
24. Nan Junying and Wang Youluo, 'Dui nongcun jiceng dang zuzhi jianshe mianlin xin qingkuang de diaocha yu sikao' [Reflections and Investigation Concerning the New Situation Facing Construction of Rural Basic-Level Party Organization], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 10, p.30.
25. Zhang Geng, 'Changping xian bufen xingzhengcun dang zhibu xianzhuang de diaocha yu fenxi' [Investigation and Analysis of the Party Branches in Some Administrative Villages of Changping County], Zhendi [The Front], 1994: 6, pp.25-6.
26. Xu Xueqing, 'Nongcun houjin dang zhibu de chengyin yu duice chu tan' [What Makes for Backward Village Party Branches, and the Initial Search for Solutions], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 17, p.29. The two statements quoted here about Party secretaries are obviously gross exaggerations; this is typical of the debate. Western scholars, on the other hand, have disagreed about whether the post-Mao incentive structure makes the position of Party secretary attractive to people with an entrepreneurial or acquisitive bent. For contrasting views, see Victor Nee, 'A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism', American Sociological Review, vol.54, no.5 (1989), pp.663-81; Jean C. Oi, The Fate of the Collective After the Commune', in Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (eds), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 15-36; and Jonathan Unger, 'Rich Man, Poor Man: The Making of New Classes in the Countryside', in David S. G. Goodman and Beverley Hooper (eds), China's Quiet Revolution (New York: Longman Cheshire, 1994), pp.43-63. See, for example, 'Zhongyang lingdao tongzhi tan' [Central Leaders Speak], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 8, p.20.
27. Xu Xueqing, 'Nongcun houjin dang zhibu de chengyin yu duice chu tan' [What Makes for Backward Village Party Branches, and the Initial Search for Solutions], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 17, p.29. The two statements quoted here about Party secretaries are obviously gross exaggerations; this is typical of the debate. Western scholars, on the other hand, have disagreed about whether the post-Mao incentive structure makes the position of Party secretary attractive to people with an entrepreneurial or acquisitive bent. For contrasting views, see Victor Nee, 'A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism', American Sociological Review, vol.54, no.5 (1989), pp.663-81; Jean C. Oi, The Fate of the Collective After the Commune', in Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (eds), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 15-36; and Jonathan Unger, 'Rich Man, Poor Man: The Making of New Classes in the Countryside', in David S. G. Goodman and Beverley Hooper (eds), China's Quiet Revolution (New York: Longman Cheshire, 1994), pp.43-63. See, for example, 'Zhongyang lingdao tongzhi tan' [Central Leaders Speak], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 8, p.20.
28. Xu Xueqing, 'Nongcun houjin dang zhibu de chengyin yu duice chu tan' [What Makes for Backward Village Party Branches, and the Initial Search for Solutions], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 17, p.29. The two statements quoted here about Party secretaries are obviously gross exaggerations; this is typical of the debate. Western scholars, on the other hand, have disagreed about whether the post-Mao incentive structure makes the position of Party secretary attractive to people with an entrepreneurial or acquisitive bent. For contrasting views, see Victor Nee, 'A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism', American Sociological Review, vol.54, no.5 (1989), pp.663-81; Jean C. Oi, The Fate of the Collective After the Commune', in Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (eds), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 15-36; and Jonathan Unger, 'Rich Man, Poor Man: The Making of New Classes in the Countryside', in David S. G. Goodman and Beverley Hooper (eds), China's Quiet Revolution (New York: Longman Cheshire, 1994), pp.43-63. See, for example, 'Zhongyang lingdao tongzhi tan' [Central Leaders Speak], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 8, p.20.
29. Xu Xueqing, 'Nongcun houjin dang zhibu de chengyin yu duice chu tan' [What Makes for Backward Village Party Branches, and the Initial Search for Solutions], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 17, p.29. The two statements quoted here about Party secretaries are obviously gross exaggerations; this is typical of the debate. Western scholars, on the other hand, have disagreed about whether the post-Mao incentive structure makes the position of Party secretary attractive to people with an entrepreneurial or acquisitive bent. For contrasting views, see Victor Nee, 'A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism', American Sociological Review, vol.54, no.5 (1989), pp.663-81; Jean C. Oi, The Fate of the Collective After the Commune', in Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (eds), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 15-36; and Jonathan Unger, 'Rich Man, Poor Man: The Making of New Classes in the Countryside', in David S. G. Goodman and Beverley Hooper (eds), China's Quiet Revolution (New York: Longman Cheshire, 1994), pp.43-63. See, for example, 'Zhongyang lingdao tongzhi tan' [Central Leaders Speak], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 8, p.20.
30. Xu Xueqing, 'Nongcun houjin dang zhibu de chengyin yu duice chu tan' [What Makes for Backward Village Party Branches, and the Initial Search for Solutions], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 17, p.29. The two statements quoted here about Party secretaries are obviously gross exaggerations; this is typical of the debate. Western scholars, on the other hand, have disagreed about whether the post-Mao incentive structure makes the position of Party secretary attractive to people with an entrepreneurial or acquisitive bent. For contrasting views, see Victor Nee, 'A Theory of Market Transition: From Redistribution to Markets in State Socialism', American Sociological Review, vol.54, no.5 (1989), pp.663-81; Jean C. Oi, The Fate of the Collective After the Commune', in Deborah Davis and Ezra F. Vogel (eds), Chinese Society on the Eve of Tiananmen: The Impact of Reform (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), pp. 15-36; and Jonathan Unger, 'Rich Man, Poor Man: The Making of New Classes in the Countryside', in David S. G. Goodman and Beverley Hooper (eds), China's Quiet Revolution (New York: Longman Cheshire, 1994), pp.43-63. See, for example, 'Zhongyang lingdao tongzhi tan' [Central Leaders Speak], Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao baogao xuan [Selected Reports from the Central Party School], 1995: 8, p.20.
31. One example is in Luyi county, Henan. See Nan Junying and Wang Youluo, 'Dui nongcun jiceng dang jianshe', p.30.
32. Zhang Geng, 'Changping xian bufen xingzhengcun dang zhibu', p.26.
33. Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang de diaocha yu duice' [Survey and Policy Suggestions Regarding the Development of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 2, p.9.
34. A late innovation, the villagers' representative assembly (cunmin daibiao huiyi), was not part of the Organic Law when it was promulgated. With one representative for every ten or fifteen families, the assembly plays an oversight role, monitoring the villagers' committee. For a detailed account, see Lawrence, 'Democracy, Chinese Style', pp.61-8.
35. The story is from Hubei. See Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu' [The Road to Stabilizing and Developing the Countryside], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 2, p.40.
36. 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian' [Carrying Out Another Round of Villagers' Direct Democracy], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 7, p.20.
37. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa de huigu yu sikao' [A Look Back at How Our Province Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.3; Sun Wanlou, 'Ba jingzheng jizhi yinru cunweihui xuanju' [Put a Competitive Mechanism in Villagers' Committee Elections], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 1, p.31; Zheng Dongfeng, 'Ganbu pei de jing, nongcun mianmao xin' [Get Worthy Cadres and the Village Will Be Renewed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3. On Fujian, see 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli: cunweihui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi yi' [Villagers' Committees Have Already Demonstrated Their Vitality: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 10, p.16.
38. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa de huigu yu sikao' [A Look Back at How Our Province Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.3; Sun Wanlou, 'Ba jingzheng jizhi yinru cunweihui xuanju' [Put a Competitive Mechanism in Villagers' Committee Elections], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 1, p.31; Zheng Dongfeng, 'Ganbu pei de jing, nongcun mianmao xin' [Get Worthy Cadres and the Village Will Be Renewed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3. On Fujian, see 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli: cunweihui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi yi' [Villagers' Committees Have Already Demonstrated Their Vitality: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 10, p.16.
39. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa de huigu yu sikao' [A Look Back at How Our Province Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.3; Sun Wanlou, 'Ba jingzheng jizhi yinru cunweihui xuanju' [Put a Competitive Mechanism in Villagers' Committee Elections], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 1, p.31; Zheng Dongfeng, 'Ganbu pei de jing, nongcun mianmao xin' [Get Worthy Cadres and the Village Will Be Renewed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3. On Fujian, see 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli: cunweihui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi yi' [Villagers' Committees Have Already Demonstrated Their Vitality: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 10, p.16.
40. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa de huigu yu sikao' [A Look Back at How Our Province Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.3; Sun Wanlou, 'Ba jingzheng jizhi yinru cunweihui xuanju' [Put a Competitive Mechanism in Villagers' Committee Elections], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 1, p.31; Zheng Dongfeng, 'Ganbu pei de jing, nongcun mianmao xin' [Get Worthy Cadres and the Village Will Be Renewed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3. On Fujian, see 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli: cunweihui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi yi' [Villagers' Committees Have Already Demonstrated Their Vitality: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 10, p.16.
41. Hunan sheng minzheng ting [Hunan Bureau of Civil Affairs], 'Guanyu hunan sheng cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa (shixing) guanche shishi qingkuang de huibao' [Report on the Situation in Hunan's Implementation the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees (Draft)], xerox dated 25 November 1993, pp.13-14.
42. Here again proponents rely on local rather than national statistics. For a typical example of the evidence they use to show a correlation between village collapse and resistance to central policy, see the figures on Fengrun county, Hebei, and Fuquan county, Guizhou cited in Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang de diaocha', p.16.
43. Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p. 10.
44. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.53.
45. Nan Junying and Wang Youluo, 'Dui nongcun jiceng dang zuzhi jianshe', p.29.
46. Cai Enze, 'Ying jiaqiang cunji zuzhi zhengtihua jianshe' [For a Complete Overhaul of Village-Level Organization], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 4, p.13.
47. Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin wei yuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9. Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p.17.
48. Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin wei yuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9. Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p.17.
49. Ma Lihui, 'Cun zu ganbu liushi de yuanyin ji duice' [Reasons for the Loss of Village Cadres, and How to Deal with it], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1995: 11, p.26.
50. Wang Shihao, 'Shiying shichang jingji xingshi', p. 19.
51. 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian: cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi er' [Opinions of Rural Affairs Workers and Villagers: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 11, p.22; Wang Ke'an, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang yu gaige' [The Present Situation and Reform of Villagers' Committees], in Zhang Houan, Bai Yihua and Wu Zhilun (eds), Zhongguo xiangzhen zhengquan jianshe (Chengdu: Sichuan Chubanshe, 1992), pp.185-201; Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p. 17; Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9.
52. 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian: cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi er' [Opinions of Rural Affairs Workers and Villagers: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 11, p.22; Wang Ke'an, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang yu gaige' [The Present Situation and Reform of Villagers' Committees], in Zhang Houan, Bai Yihua and Wu Zhilun (eds), Zhongguo xiangzhen zhengquan jianshe (Chengdu: Sichuan Chubanshe, 1992), pp.185-201; Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p. 17; Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9.
53. 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian: cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi er' [Opinions of Rural Affairs Workers and Villagers: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 11, p.22; Wang Ke'an, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang yu gaige' [The Present Situation and Reform of Villagers' Committees], in Zhang Houan, Bai Yihua and Wu Zhilun (eds), Zhongguo xiangzhen zhengquan jianshe (Chengdu: Sichuan Chubanshe, 1992), pp.185-201; Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p. 17; Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9.
54. 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian: cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa diaocha baogao zhi er' [Opinions of Rural Affairs Workers and Villagers: Investigative Report on the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees, Part Two], Zhongguo dalu yanjiu jiaoxue tongxun [Mainland China Studies Newsletter], 1995: 11, p.22; Wang Ke'an, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang yu gaige' [The Present Situation and Reform of Villagers' Committees], in Zhang Houan, Bai Yihua and Wu Zhilun (eds), Zhongguo xiangzhen zhengquan jianshe (Chengdu: Sichuan Chubanshe, 1992), pp.185-201; Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p. 17; Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9.
55. Wang Shihao, 'Shiying shichang jingji xingshi', p.19.
56. Speaking of the rural crisis, one writer asserted that '90 percent of the problem arose after the agricultural responsibility system, and it has grown more severe every day since 1984'. Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p.17.
57. Xiang Jiquan, 'Nongcun jiceng zhengquan jianshe mianlin', p.64.
58. Zheng Quan, 'Quanguo cun ji zuzhi zhuangkuang', p.17.
59. Xiang Jiquan, 'Nongcun jiceng zhengquan jianshe', p.63.
60. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4. See also Gao Jie, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhi jianshe de beijing, xianzhuang he zhengce daoxiang' [The Background, Current Status, and Policy Direction of Building Villagers' Committees], Faxue yanjiu [Legal Research], 1994: 2, p.14.
61. Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4. See also Gao Jie, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhi jianshe de beijing, xianzhuang he zhengce daoxiang' [The Background, Current Status, and Policy Direction of Building Villagers' Committees], Faxue yanjiu [Legal Research], 1994: 2, p.14.
62. Li Shiying, 'Lintong xian baimiao cun shixing cunmin zizhi caifang jishi' [On-the-spot Report on the Practice of Villagers' Self-government in Baimiao Village, Lintong County], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 4, p.9. For a similar story, see Zhu Hong and Yan Hao, 'Yige you nongmin chuangzao de jiceng zhengzhi minzhu zhidu' [A Peasant-Created System of Basic-Level Political Democracy], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 4, p.8.
63. Li Shiying, 'Lintong xian baimiao cun shixing cunmin zizhi caifang jishi' [On-the-spot Report on the Practice of Villagers' Self-government in Baimiao Village, Lintong County], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 4, p.9. For a similar story, see Zhu Hong and Yan Hao, 'Yige you nongmin chuangzao de jiceng zhengzhi minzhu zhidu' [A Peasant-Created System of Basic-Level Political Democracy], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 4, p.8.
64. Zuo Guocai and Liu Wenji, 'Cunmin he jiceng ganbu dui cunmin zizhi de fanying' [Reactions of Villagers and Basic-Level Cadres to Villagers' Self-Government], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 10, p.13.
65. 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.20.
66. For examples, see Cheng Liangbi, 'Women shi zenyang guanche shishi cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa de' [How We Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 3, p.22; and 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.20. But, of course, there are also reports of villagers threatening to vote out officials who enforce family planning. For example, see Wang Ke'an,'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang', p. 188.
67. For examples, see Cheng Liangbi, 'Women shi zenyang guanche shishi cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa de' [How We Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 3, p.22; and 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.20. But, of course, there are also reports of villagers threatening to vote out officials who enforce family planning. For example, see Wang Ke'an,'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang', p. 188.
68. For examples, see Cheng Liangbi, 'Women shi zenyang guanche shishi cunmin weiyuanhui zuzhifa de' [How We Implemented the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 3, p.22; and 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.20. But, of course, there are also reports of villagers threatening to vote out officials who enforce family planning. For example, see Wang Ke'an,'Cunmin weiyuanhui de xianzhuang', p. 188.
69. Included among these are more cremations (as opposed to burials) - another unpopular policy. For examples of all these claims, see Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi: jiceng minzhu zhengzhi de zuzhi he zhidu jianshe' [Villagers' Self-Government: Organizing and Systematizing Basic-Level Democratic Politics], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1992: 7, p. 17; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang' [Village Self-Government Shows its Strength], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 29 August 1995, p.3; Wang Gongsen, 'Cunweihui zuzhifa guanche hou de xiaoguo ji dangqian de gongzuo' [Results of Implementing the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees and New Tasks for the Present], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 3, p.7; 'Luoshi sige minzhu, fahui san zi gongneng' [Put the Four Democracies into Practice and Give Free Rein to the Function of the Three Freedoms], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.20; and Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4;
70. Included among these are more cremations (as opposed to burials) - another unpopular policy. For examples of all these claims, see Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi: jiceng minzhu zhengzhi de zuzhi he zhidu jianshe' [Villagers' Self-Government: Organizing and Systematizing Basic-Level Democratic Politics], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1992: 7, p. 17; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang' [Village Self-Government Shows its Strength], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 29 August 1995, p.3; Wang Gongsen, 'Cunweihui zuzhifa guanche hou de xiaoguo ji dangqian de gongzuo' [Results of Implementing the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees and New Tasks for the Present], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 3, p.7; 'Luoshi sige minzhu, fahui san zi gongneng' [Put the Four Democracies into Practice and Give Free Rein to the Function of the Three Freedoms], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.20; and Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4;
71. Included among these are more cremations (as opposed to burials) - another unpopular policy. For examples of all these claims, see Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi: jiceng minzhu zhengzhi de zuzhi he zhidu jianshe' [Villagers' Self-Government: Organizing and Systematizing Basic-Level Democratic Politics], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1992: 7, p. 17; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang' [Village Self-Government Shows its Strength], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 29 August 1995, p.3; Wang Gongsen, 'Cunweihui zuzhifa guanche hou de xiaoguo ji dangqian de gongzuo' [Results of Implementing the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees and New Tasks for the Present], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 3, p.7; 'Luoshi sige minzhu, fahui san zi gongneng' [Put the Four Democracies into Practice and Give Free Rein to the Function of the Three Freedoms], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.20; and Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4;
72. Included among these are more cremations (as opposed to burials) - another unpopular policy. For examples of all these claims, see Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi: jiceng minzhu zhengzhi de zuzhi he zhidu jianshe' [Villagers' Self-Government: Organizing and Systematizing Basic-Level Democratic Politics], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1992: 7, p. 17; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang' [Village Self-Government Shows its Strength], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 29 August 1995, p.3; Wang Gongsen, 'Cunweihui zuzhifa guanche hou de xiaoguo ji dangqian de gongzuo' [Results of Implementing the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees and New Tasks for the Present], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 3, p.7; 'Luoshi sige minzhu, fahui san zi gongneng' [Put the Four Democracies into Practice and Give Free Rein to the Function of the Three Freedoms], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.20; and Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4;
73. Included among these are more cremations (as opposed to burials) - another unpopular policy. For examples of all these claims, see Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi: jiceng minzhu zhengzhi de zuzhi he zhidu jianshe' [Villagers' Self-Government: Organizing and Systematizing Basic-Level Democratic Politics], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1992: 7, p. 17; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang' [Village Self-Government Shows its Strength], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 29 August 1995, p.3; Wang Gongsen, 'Cunweihui zuzhifa guanche hou de xiaoguo ji dangqian de gongzuo' [Results of Implementing the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees and New Tasks for the Present], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 3, p.7; 'Luoshi sige minzhu, fahui san zi gongneng' [Put the Four Democracies into Practice and Give Free Rein to the Function of the Three Freedoms], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.20; and Cui Yanping and Zhang Zhixiong, 'Wo sheng guanche shishi cunweihui zuzhifa', p.4;
74. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', p.17.
75. These examples are from Anhui, Hubei and Fujian. For details, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun cunmin zizhi zhong de jige wenti' [Using Tengyun Village to Look at Problems in Self-Government among our Country's Rural Villagers], Jianghuai luntan [Jianghuai Forum], 1993: 5, p.66; Fan Zhaoqi and Wei Shiping, 'Fujian sheng jiceng zizhi zuzhi jianshe qingkuang kaocha; [Investigating the Construction of Basic-Level Organs of Self-Government in Fujian], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 4, p.36.; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang', p.3; and 'Luoshi sige minzhu', p.19.
76. These examples are from Anhui, Hubei and Fujian. For details, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun cunmin zizhi zhong de jige wenti' [Using Tengyun Village to Look at Problems in Self-Government among our Country's Rural Villagers], Jianghuai luntan [Jianghuai Forum], 1993: 5, p.66; Fan Zhaoqi and Wei Shiping, 'Fujian sheng jiceng zizhi zuzhi jianshe qingkuang kaocha; [Investigating the Construction of Basic-Level Organs of Self-Government in Fujian], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 4, p.36.; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang', p.3; and 'Luoshi sige minzhu', p.19.
77. These examples are from Anhui, Hubei and Fujian. For details, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun cunmin zizhi zhong de jige wenti' [Using Tengyun Village to Look at Problems in Self-Government among our Country's Rural Villagers], Jianghuai luntan [Jianghuai Forum], 1993: 5, p.66; Fan Zhaoqi and Wei Shiping, 'Fujian sheng jiceng zizhi zuzhi jianshe qingkuang kaocha; [Investigating the Construction of Basic-Level Organs of Self-Government in Fujian], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 4, p.36.; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang', p.3; and 'Luoshi sige minzhu', p.19.
78. These examples are from Anhui, Hubei and Fujian. For details, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun cunmin zizhi zhong de jige wenti' [Using Tengyun Village to Look at Problems in Self-Government among our Country's Rural Villagers], Jianghuai luntan [Jianghuai Forum], 1993: 5, p.66; Fan Zhaoqi and Wei Shiping, 'Fujian sheng jiceng zizhi zuzhi jianshe qingkuang kaocha; [Investigating the Construction of Basic-Level Organs of Self-Government in Fujian], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 4, p.36.; Ma Weiqian and Wu Feng, 'Cunmin zizhi xian liliang', p.3; and 'Luoshi sige minzhu', p.19.
79. Zhang Zhixiong, 'Jiaqiang cunmin zizhi, fazhan jiceng minzhu' [Strengthen Villagers' Self-Government and Develop Basic-Level Democracy], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1992: 2, p.13.
80. The proponents' appeal here dovetails with concerns in Beijing, where the State Council has contemplated hiring foreign image consultants to handle such embarrassments as China's human-rights record. See Marcus W. Brauchli, 'China Has Surly Image, But Part of the Reason Is Bad Public Relations', The Wall Street Journal, 18 June 1996, pp.A1, A6; Elaine Sciolino, 'China, Vying With Taiwan, Explores Public Relations', The New York Times, 2 February 1996, pp.A1, A4.
81. The proponents' appeal here dovetails with concerns in Beijing, where the State Council has contemplated hiring foreign image consultants to handle such embarrassments as China's human-rights record. See Marcus W. Brauchli, 'China Has Surly Image, But Part of the Reason Is Bad Public Relations', The Wall Street Journal, 18 June 1996, pp.A1, A6; Elaine Sciolino, 'China, Vying With Taiwan, Explores Public Relations', The New York Times, 2 February 1996, pp.A1, A4.
82. 'Zhuazhu zizhi jiu zhuazhu le gang' [To Grasp Self-Government is to Grasp the Key Link], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 22 July 1995, p.1.
83. In February 1995, for example, Ministry of Civil Affairs officials held a news conference on village self-government at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs - although the latter of course has nothing to do with village governance. The stated reason for the venue was that only the superior facilities at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs could accommodate the large number of foreign reporters. But a foreign journalist who was present told me that the real reason for the news conference was that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs wanted help.With negotiations over intellectual property rights and other issues pending with the United States, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was dying for some good press - just the kind provided by village democracy. For the official version of this event, see Wu Guimin, 'Zhongguo nongcun jiceng minzhu zai gaige zhong fayu chengzhang' [In the Course of Reform, Basic-Level Chinese Village Democracy is Growing to Maturity], Zhongguo shehui bao [Chinese Society Newspaper], 13 July 1995, p.3.
84. ibid., p.3. I want to emphasize that in this paragraph I am only relating a Chinese interpretation of how Western observers react to elections. My own opinion is that Western coverage by scholars and journalists alike has been rigorous, balanced and professional.
85. For several examples of these tales, see Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan' [Peasants' Long-Cherished Wish], Minzhu yu fazhi [Democracy and the Legal System], 1995: 2, p.10; and 'Waiguoren yanli de cunmin zizhi' [What Village Self-Government Looks Like to Foreigners], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1992: 11, p.14.
86. For several examples of these tales, see Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan' [Peasants' Long-Cherished Wish], Minzhu yu fazhi [Democracy and the Legal System], 1995: 2, p.10; and 'Waiguoren yanli de cunmin zizhi' [What Village Self-Government Looks Like to Foreigners], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1992: 11, p.14.
87. Wu Guimin, 'Zhongguo nongcun jiceng minzhu', p.3.
88. 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
89. Wang Kuo, 'Cunmin xuanju xinli ji qi duice' [The Psychology of Villagers' Elections], Minzheng yanjiu [Research in Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.24.
90. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun minzhu lungang' [Contemporary Chinese Village Democracy], Xuexi yu tansuo [Study and Exploration], 1993: 1, p.38. Cf. Zhen Xingguo and Shi Min, 'Yige tiaojian hao de cun xuanju weishenme shibai' [Why an Election in a Well-Off Village Failed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 8, pp.20-21.
91. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun minzhu lungang' [Contemporary Chinese Village Democracy], Xuexi yu tansuo [Study and Exploration], 1993: 1, p.38. Cf. Zhen Xingguo and Shi Min, 'Yige tiaojian hao de cun xuanju weishenme shibai' [Why an Election in a Well-Off Village Failed], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 8, pp.20-21.
92. Zhou Huiyi, 'Shehui kongzhi dui cunmin zizhi de yueshu he daoxiang' [Restraining Influence of Social Control on Villagers' Self-Government], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1992: 3, p.13.
93. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo noncun', p.35. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
94. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo noncun', p.35. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
95. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.17. Western Hunan is a commonly cited example.
96. Township cadres surveyed in Henan, for example, worried because 'practising village democracy and self-government means that the township has no power to make appointments ... They fear they'll have no authority over village cadres, so duties with mandatory targets such as production quotas and especially birth control will be impossible to meet'. Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe: jidian kanfa he jianyi' [Building Basic-Level Political Power: Views and Suggestions], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 12, p.32. In a Jiangxi survey a majority of county and township officials opposed self-government for the same reason - because it 'means that the state duties will be even harder to fulfill'. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52. When proponents say that self-government in Fujian brought tighter enforcement of state demands, opponents respond by pointing to Liaoning, where villagers 'mistook self-government for freedom' and tax resistance reportedly broke out in 60 per cent of villages. See Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.10. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
97. Township cadres surveyed in Henan, for example, worried because 'practising village democracy and self-government means that the township has no power to make appointments ... They fear they'll have no authority over village cadres, so duties with mandatory targets such as production quotas and especially birth control will be impossible to meet'. Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe: jidian kanfa he jianyi' [Building Basic-Level Political Power: Views and Suggestions], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 12, p.32. In a Jiangxi survey a majority of county and township officials opposed self-government for the same reason - because it 'means that the state duties will be even harder to fulfill'. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52. When proponents say that self-government in Fujian brought tighter enforcement of state demands, opponents respond by pointing to Liaoning, where villagers 'mistook self-government for freedom' and tax resistance reportedly broke out in 60 per cent of villages. See Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.10. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
98. Township cadres surveyed in Henan, for example, worried because 'practising village democracy and self-government means that the township has no power to make appointments ... They fear they'll have no authority over village cadres, so duties with mandatory targets such as production quotas and especially birth control will be impossible to meet'. Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe: jidian kanfa he jianyi' [Building Basic-Level Political Power: Views and Suggestions], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 12, p.32. In a Jiangxi survey a majority of county and township officials opposed self-government for the same reason - because it 'means that the state duties will be even harder to fulfill'. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52. When proponents say that self-government in Fujian brought tighter enforcement of state demands, opponents respond by pointing to Liaoning, where villagers 'mistook self-government for freedom' and tax resistance reportedly broke out in 60 per cent of villages. See Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.10. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
99. Township cadres surveyed in Henan, for example, worried because 'practising village democracy and self-government means that the township has no power to make appointments ... They fear they'll have no authority over village cadres, so duties with mandatory targets such as production quotas and especially birth control will be impossible to meet'. Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe: jidian kanfa he jianyi' [Building Basic-Level Political Power: Views and Suggestions], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 12, p.32. In a Jiangxi survey a majority of county and township officials opposed self-government for the same reason - because it 'means that the state duties will be even harder to fulfill'. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52. When proponents say that self-government in Fujian brought tighter enforcement of state demands, opponents respond by pointing to Liaoning, where villagers 'mistook self-government for freedom' and tax resistance reportedly broke out in 60 per cent of villages. See Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.10. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.56.
100. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun', p.37. For provincial surveys corroborating these sentiments among local cadres, see Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52; and Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe', p.32.
101. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun', p.37. For provincial surveys corroborating these sentiments among local cadres, see Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52; and Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe', p.32.
102. Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun', p.37. For provincial surveys corroborating these sentiments among local cadres, see Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52; and Wang Desheng and Wang Jinsheng, 'Jiceng zhengquan jianshe', p.32.
103. 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19. For a well-argued rebuttal defending villagers' competence for democratic citizenship, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun', pp.64-9.
104. 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19. For a well-argued rebuttal defending villagers' competence for democratic citizenship, see Xin Qiushui, 'Cong Tengyun cun kan woguo nongcun', pp.64-9.
105. Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52.
106. For another version, see Xin Xiangyang, 'Dangdai zhongguo nongcun', p.37.
107. Sun Youfu, 'Jianshe zhenzheng lüxing zizhi zhineng de cunweihui' [Build Villagers' Committees that Genuinely Perform the Function of Self-Government], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1992: 2, p.8. Cf. Bai Yihua, 'Tantan cunweihui zuzhifa de jiben yuanze' [Discussion of the Basic Principles of the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1988: 6, p.28.
108. Sun Youfu, 'Jianshe zhenzheng lüxing zizhi zhineng de cunweihui' [Build Villagers' Committees that Genuinely Perform the Function of Self-Government], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1992: 2, p.8. Cf. Bai Yihua, 'Tantan cunweihui zuzhifa de jiben yuanze' [Discussion of the Basic Principles of the Organic Law of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1988: 6, p.28.
109. On Shaanxi see Li Shiying, 'Lintong xian baimiao cun shixing', p.9; on Jiangxi see Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52.
110. On Shaanxi see Li Shiying, 'Lintong xian baimiao cun shixing', p.9; on Jiangxi see Xiao Tangbiao, 'Minzhuhua: cun ji zuzhi jianshe', p.52.
111. Zhang Zhixiong, 'Jiaqiang cunmin zizhi', p.14. Compare similar sentiments in Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.15; and Zuo Guocai and Liu Wenji, 'Cunmin he jiceng ganbu', p.13.
112. Zhang Zhixiong, 'Jiaqiang cunmin zizhi', p.14. Compare similar sentiments in Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.15; and Zuo Guocai and Liu Wenji, 'Cunmin he jiceng ganbu', p.13.
113. Zhang Zhixiong, 'Jiaqiang cunmin zizhi', p.14. Compare similar sentiments in Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.15; and Zuo Guocai and Liu Wenji, 'Cunmin he jiceng ganbu', p.13.
114. Hui Mingwen and Qi Hangjian, 'Qian tan zhen zhengfu dui cunweihui de zhidao' [Town Governments' Guidance of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 9, p.21. Cf. 'Minzhu, minyue' [Democracy and Civil Pacts], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 1, p.22.
115. Hui Mingwen and Qi Hangjian, 'Qian tan zhen zhengfu dui cunweihui de zhidao' [Town Governments' Guidance of Villagers' Committees], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 9, p.21. Cf. 'Minzhu, minyue' [Democracy and Civil Pacts], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1989: 1, p.22.
116. Chen Shjyun, 'Cunmin weiyuan hui jianshe qingkuang', p.9. The blunter opponents say China should forget the whole affair and make villagers' committees into direct agencies (paichu jigou) of township government. See 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian', p.18.
117. Chen Shjyun, 'Cunmin weiyuan hui jianshe qingkuang', p.9. The blunter opponents say China should forget the whole affair and make villagers' committees into direct agencies (paichu jigou) of township government. See 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian', p.18.
118. Wu Guimin, 'Zhongguo nongcun jiceng minzhu', p.3.
119. The villagers' committee has more autonomy from government units than from Party units. In dealing with the township government it is subject only to 'guidance' - that is, zhidao, a looser term than lingdao.
120. Bai Yihua, 'Tantan cunweihui zuzhifa', p.27.
121. An Qinghu, 'Tantan dangqian xuanju zhong chuxian de 'liang ci minzhu jizhong' xianxiang' [The Emerging Phenomenon of 'Two Cycles of Democratic Centralism' in Contemporary Elections], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1994: 11, pp.1, 2, 7. The principles of Party discipline were laid down by Mao Zedong in 1938. See Mao Zedong, 'The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War', Selected Works of Mao Tsetung, Volume II (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1967), p.204.
122. An Qinghu, 'Tantan dangqian xuanju zhong chuxian de 'liang ci minzhu jizhong' xianxiang' [The Emerging Phenomenon of 'Two Cycles of Democratic Centralism' in Contemporary Elections], Neibu wenzhai [Internal Digest], 1994: 11, pp.1, 2, 7. The principles of Party discipline were laid down by Mao Zedong in 1938. See Mao Zedong, 'The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War', Selected Works of Mao Tsetung, Volume II (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, 1967), p.204.
123. 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian', p.20.
124. Jiang Songtang et al., 'Yi qu gantian yu kuse de jiaoxiangyue' [A Bittersweet Symphony], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 4, p.11.
125. For examples see Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9; and Liu Xiangsui and Yuan Shuxun, 'Yao xunsu jiuzheng cunweihui banzi you geren zuge de cuowu zuofa' [Quickly Rectify the Error of Individuals Setting up Villagers' Committees as Their Cabinets], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3, p.26.
126. For examples see Chen Shiyun, 'Cunmin weiyuanhui jianshe qingkuang', p.9; and Liu Xiangsui and Yuan Shuxun, 'Yao xunsu jiuzheng cunweihui banzi you geren zuge de cuowu zuofa' [Quickly Rectify the Error of Individuals Setting up Villagers' Committees as Their Cabinets], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1995: 3, p.26.
127. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, pp.15-16; Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa xuanju cunweihui de shijian' [The Case of Xiayuan County Overturning an Illegal Election for Villagers' Committee], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 3, p.39; and 'Minzhu, minyue', p.22.
128. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, pp.15-16; Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa xuanju cunweihui de shijian' [The Case of Xiayuan County Overturning an Illegal Election for Villagers' Committee], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 3, p.39; and 'Minzhu, minyue', p.22.
129. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, pp.15-16; Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa xuanju cunweihui de shijian' [The Case of Xiayuan County Overturning an Illegal Election for Villagers' Committee], Xiangzhen luntan [Town and Township Forum], 1991: 3, p.39; and 'Minzhu, minyue', p.22.
130. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
131. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
132. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
133. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
134. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
135. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
136. 'Cunweihui yi xianshi chu qi shengmingli', pp.17-18; Xiang Zicheng, 'Zhuangjiaren de suyuan', p.12; Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12. Against all this, proponents like to publicize stories of 'villagers using the law as a weapon and fighting to win back their democratic rights' (Hunan sheng minzheng ting, p.12). For examples of villagers resisting Party interference in elections, see Chen Wenqi, 'Xiayuan xian jiuzhengle yiqi weifa', p.39; and Chen Nongyou et al., 'Nongcun wending yu fazhan zhi lu', p.40. For tales of villagers fighting off township-government intrusions into elections, see 'Cunmin zhijie minzhu de you yi ci shijian', p.19.
137. Party officials have argued that concurrent office-holding is absolutely necessary, for otherwise the Party cannot control village economic policy (which is technically the province of the elected government, not the Party branch). See 'Lai zi nongcun gongzuozhe he cunmin de yijian', p.20.
138. Liu Jiang, 'Jingyibu jiaqiang nongye', p.11.
139. Pu Shenglin, 'Guanyu goujian xinxing cun ji zuzhi xingshi de sixiang' [Thoughts on Building a New Type of Village-Level Organization], Xin changcheng [New Long March], 1993: 11, p.38.
140. Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi', p.17. Cf. Li Duanhe, 'Zai ben xiaokang de shijian zhong jiaqiang cun ji dang zhibu jianshe' [While Working toward Material Well-Being, Build up the Village Party Branch], Zhendi [The Front], 1994: 6, p.28.
141. Fang Yan and Bao Yonghui, 'Cunmin zizhi', p.17. Cf. Li Duanhe, 'Zai ben xiaokang de shijian zhong jiaqiang cun ji dang zhibu jianshe' [While Working toward Material Well-Being, Build up the Village Party Branch], Zhendi [The Front], 1994: 6, p.28.
142. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, pp.3-4. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.54.
143. Hunan sheng minzheng ting, pp.3-4. Cf. O'Brien, 'Implementing Reform in China's Villages', p.54.
144. Zuo Guocai et al., 'Zhengzhi huansan cun de jiben silu' [Basic Thoughts on Repairing Lax Villages], Zhongguo minzheng [Chinese Civil Administration], 1990: 1, p.9.
145. For examples, see Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, 'The Politics of Lodging Complaints in Rural China', The China Quarterly, no.143 (September 1995), pp.756-83.