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Volumn 40, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 151-174

Differentiated actors: Central-local politics in China's rural tax reforms

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DECISION MAKING; POLITICAL ECONOMY; POLITICS; TAX REFORM;

EID: 33646906443     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: 14698099     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X06001855     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (36)

References (96)
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    • For a succinct review of the recent trends of the implementation literature, see (London: Sage Publications)
    • For a succinct review of the recent trends of the implementation literature, see Michael Hill and Peter Hupe, Implementing Public Policy: Governance in Theory and in Practice (London: Sage Publications, 2002).
    • (2002) Implementing Public Policy: Governance in Theory and in Practice
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    • 33646933907 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A group of literature in this genre is the three volumes published as a result of a series of annual workshops between 1995-8 under the project 'China's Provinces in Reform', exploring the complexities of continental China and the role of the provinces and subprovincials as generic actors in the polity. The project was organized by the Institute for International Studies at University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), and later by the Centre for Research on Provincial China, a joint institution of UTS and the University of New South Wales. The Centre publishes the journal Provincial China first started by UTS in 1996. The three volumes are: ed.
    • A group of literature in this genre is the three volumes published as a result of a series of annual workshops between 1995-8 under the project 'China's Provinces in Reform', exploring the complexities of continental China and the role of the provinces and subprovincials as generic actors in the polity. The project was organized by the Institute for International Studies at University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), and later by the Centre for Research on Provincial China, a joint institution of UTS and the University of New South Wales. The Centre publishes the journal Provincial China first started by UTS in 1996. The three volumes are: David Goodman, ed., China's Provinces in Reform,
    • China's Provinces in Reform
    • Goodman, D.1
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    • 0242287793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ed., all published by Routledge, in 1997, 1999, and respectively
    • and John Fitzgerald, ed., Rethinking China's Provinces, all published by Routledge, in 1997, 1999, and 2002 respectively.
    • (2002) Rethinking China's Provinces
    • Fitzgerald, J.1
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    • 33646930436 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The group of articles on the 'Open Up the West' campaign/policy appears as (June) Authors include David Goodman, Heike Holbig, Nicolas Becquelin, Eduard Vermeer, Christopher McNally, Lijian Hong, and Tim Oakes
    • The group of articles on the 'Open Up the West' campaign/policy appears as Vol. 178 (June 2004) The China Quarterly. Authors include David Goodman, Heike Holbig, Nicolas Becquelin, Eduard Vermeer, Christopher McNally, Lijian Hong, and Tim Oakes.
    • (2004) The China Quarterly , vol.178
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    • 0006570425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For earlier works on the need to disaggregate China, see eds
    • For earlier works on the need to disaggregate China, see Goodman and Segal, eds., China Deconstructs,
    • China Deconstructs
    • Goodman, D.S.G.1    Segal, G.2
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    • 0013121518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Centre and Periphery after Twenty Years of Reform: Redefining the Chinese Polity'
    • and Goodman, 'Centre and Periphery after Twenty Years of Reform: Redefining the Chinese Polity', China Perspectives, 31, 2000, 4-18.
    • (2000) China Perspectives , vol.31 , pp. 4-18
    • Goodman, D.S.G.1
  • 18
    • 3242816152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'The Emergence of the Campaign to Open Up the West: Ideological Formation, Central Decision-Making and the Role of the Provinces'
    • (June)
    • Heike Holbig, 'The Emergence of the Campaign to Open Up the West: Ideological Formation, Central Decision-Making and the Role of the Provinces', The China Quarterly, Vol. 178 (June 2004), 335-57.
    • (2004) The China Quarterly , vol.178 , pp. 335-357
    • Holbig, H.1
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    • 85068342214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Introduction'
    • A similar observation along this line was made in other contexts. For instance, over the discussion of philosophy of social sciences, Roy Bhaskar and Tony Lawson noted that a major reason for the continuing survival of the positivist conception of social sciences was 'the inability of its opponents to sustain in a sufficiently coherent manner' (the key components of the critique). Margaret Archer pointed out that the Collectivist Account of the structure-agency question is kept defensive against, and supplementary to, the Individual Account due to a failure to advance coherently an independent ontology of social structure. See Margaret Archer, Roy Bhaskar, Andrew Collier, Tony Lawson and Alan Norrie, eds., (London and NY: Routledge)
    • A similar observation along this line was made in other contexts. For instance, over the discussion of philosophy of social sciences, Roy Bhaskar and Tony Lawson noted that a major reason for the continuing survival of the positivist conception of social sciences was 'the inability of its opponents to sustain in a sufficiently coherent manner' (the key components of the critique). Margaret Archer pointed out that the Collectivist Account of the structure-agency question is kept defensive against, and supplementary to, the Individual Account due to a failure to advance coherently an independent ontology of social structure. See Roy Bhaskar and Tony Lawson, 'Introduction', in Margaret Archer, Roy Bhaskar, Andrew Collier, Tony Lawson and Alan Norrie, eds., Critical Realism: Essential Readings (London and NY: Routledge, 1998), 3
    • (1998) Critical Realism: Essential Readings , pp. 3
    • Bhaskar, R.1    Lawson, T.2
  • 21
    • 0037366517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'State Capacity and Local Agent Control in China: CCP Cadre Management from a Township Perspective'
    • Some examples of recent work adopting a dualistic framework, sometimes implicitly, are: (March)
    • Some examples of recent work adopting a dualistic framework, sometimes implicitly, are: Maria Edin, 'State Capacity and Local Agent Control in China: CCP Cadre Management from a Township Perspective', The China Quarterly, 173 (March 2003), 35-49
    • (2003) The China Quarterly , vol.173 , pp. 35-49
    • Edin, M.1
  • 22
    • 2142827161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Between Separate Stoves and a Single Menu: Fiscal Decentralization in China'
    • March
    • Kai-yuen Tsui and Youqiang Wang, 'Between Separate Stoves and a Single Menu: Fiscal Decentralization in China', The China Quarterly, 177 March (2004), 71-90
    • (2004) The China Quarterly , vol.177 , pp. 71-90
    • Tsui, K.-Y.1    Wang, Y.2
  • 23
    • 33646938106 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Agency, Incentive, and Institutional Design: Bureaucracy control and Evolution of Governance in Contemporary China'
    • Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago
    • and Fubing Su, 'Agency, Incentive, and Institutional Design: Bureaucracy control and Evolution of Governance in Contemporary China', Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 2002.
    • (2002)
    • Su, F.1
  • 24
    • 0347170897 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Towards a Non-Zero-Sum Interactive Framework of Spatial Politics: The Case of Centre-Province in Contemporary China'
    • For an extensive critique of the dualistic approach and an argument for the non-dualistic alternative, see (March)
    • For an extensive critique of the dualistic approach and an argument for the non-dualistic alternative, see Linda Chelan Li, 'Towards a Non-Zero-Sum Interactive Framework of Spatial Politics: The Case of Centre-Province in Contemporary China', Political Studies, 45, 1 (March 1997), 49-65.
    • (1997) Political Studies , vol.45 , Issue.1 , pp. 49-65
    • Li, L.C.1
  • 25
    • 33645409848 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Understanding Institutional Change: Fiscal Management in Local China'
    • In a further development, Li attempts to locate endogenous forces of change in
    • In a further development, Li attempts to locate endogenous forces of change in 'Understanding Institutional Change: Fiscal Management in Local China', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 35, No. 1 (2005): 87-108.
    • (2005) Journal of Contemporary Asia , vol.35 , Issue.1 , pp. 87-108
  • 26
    • 33646912565 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In early 1993 tens of thousands of villagers in Xie-an Township, Yanshou County in Sichuan Province protested against the imposition of local levies of some 70 yuan per person to pay for the construction of a road connecting the county to Chengdu, the provincial capital. Local officials staged a clamp down, resulting in persistent resistance from the peasants for some time, and subsequently drew the attention of the central government and the international community to the heightening tension between peasants and local cadres in China. See for an account of the 1993 events
    • In early 1993 tens of thousands of villagers in Xie-an Township, Yanshou County in Sichuan Province protested against the imposition of local levies of some 70 yuan per person to pay for the construction of a road connecting the county to Chengdu, the provincial capital. Local officials staged a clamp down, resulting in persistent resistance from the peasants for some time, and subsequently drew the attention of the central government and the international community to the heightening tension between peasants and local cadres in China. See http://bjzc.org/ bjs/bc/02/6320/8/2004 for an account of the 1993 events,
  • 27
    • 84911086304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'What can a representative of peasants' interests achieve in China?'
    • and (the rural version), for an interview of the peasant leader of the 1993 resistance
    • and Pou Wenchong, 'What can a representative of peasants' interests achieve in China?', Zhongguo Gaige (China Reform), (the rural version), 3 (2003), 42-3, for an interview of the peasant leader of the 1993 resistance.
    • (2003) Zhongguo Gaige (China Reform) , vol.3 , pp. 42-43
    • Wenchong, P.1
  • 28
    • 3142614637 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • According to official income statistics, rural to urban income per household widens from the lowest at 1:1.86 in 1985 to 1:3.11 in 2002. The widening gap was reversed briefly during 1995-1997, when the ratio dropped from 1:2.86 in 1994 to 1:2.47 in 1997. The ratio was 1:2.57 in 1978. See National Bureau of Statistics of China (Beijing: China Statistics Press)
    • According to official income statistics, rural to urban income per household widens from the lowest at 1:1.86 in 1985 to 1:3.11 in 2002. The widening gap was reversed briefly during 1995-1997, when the ratio dropped from 1:2.86 in 1994 to 1:2.47 in 1997. The ratio was 1:2.57 in 1978. See National Bureau of Statistics of China, China Statistical Yearbook, 2003 (Beijing: China Statistics Press, 2003), 344.
    • (2003) China Statistical Yearbook 2003 , pp. 344
  • 29
    • 10244223836 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In 2003, the gap widened further, as rural income per capita increased by 4.3% in 2003, against 9.3% for urban dwellers. 28 April
    • In 2003, the gap widened further, as rural income per capita increased by 4.3% in 2003, against 9.3% for urban dwellers. China Daily 28 April 2004.
    • (2004) China Daily
  • 30
    • 33646937816 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An estimate purportedly by the Party Central in 2002, as reported in a Hong Kong source, put daily demonstrations, rallies, and other collective activities in cities at an average of 120 cases, and 160 cases in the countryside, excluding visits to the 'Receiving the Public' section of the various government departments. See A semi-official study on the subject gives a long list of 'direct causes': heavy peasants' burden; reform to state enterprises (and the consequent massive urban unemployment); maladministration over land, finance and enterprises; malpractices in village elections; tensions over lineage, religion and ethnic groups; and general law and order issues. The report quotes also an equally handsome list of deep-seated causes: bureaucratism, breakdown in grassroots level governance structures, poverty, transitional problems in economic development and reform, implementation failures, and the absence of 'self-corrective' mechanism in the political system
    • An estimate purportedly by the Party Central in 2002, as reported in a Hong Kong source, put daily demonstrations, rallies, and other collective activities in cities at an average of 120 cases, and 160 cases in the countryside, excluding visits to the 'Receiving the Public' section of the various government departments. See The Trend 4 (2002), 12-14. A semi-official study on the subject gives a long list of 'direct causes': Heavy peasants' burden; reform to state enterprises (and the consequent massive urban unemployment); maladministration over land, finance and enterprises; malpractices in village elections; tensions over lineage, religion and ethnic groups; and general law and order issues. The report quotes also an equally handsome list of deep-seated causes: Bureaucratism, breakdown in grassroots level governance structures, poverty, transitional problems in economic development and reform, implementation failures, and the absence of 'self-corrective' mechanism in the political system.
    • (2002) The Trend , vol.4 , pp. 12-14
  • 31
    • 33646922953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A study on social clashes in transitional China: Main features, causes and policy recommendations'
    • Chinese Public Administration Society Project Group, A body of literature has emerged to study this phenomenon
    • Chinese Public Administration Society Project Group, 'A study on social clashes in transitional China: Main features, causes and policy recommendations', Chinese Public Administration, 203, 5 (2002), 6-9. A body of literature has emerged to study this phenomenon.
    • (2002) Chinese Public Administration , vol.203 , Issue.5 , pp. 6-9
  • 32
    • 0030430811 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Rightful resistance'
    • See for instance
    • See for instance Kevin O'Brien, 'Rightful resistance', World Politics, 45, 1 (1996), 31-55
    • (1996) World Politics , vol.45 , Issue.1 , pp. 31-55
    • O'Brien, K.1
  • 33
    • 84976003258 scopus 로고
    • 'The politics of lodging complaints in rural China'
    • (Sept)
    • O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, 'The politics of lodging complaints in rural China', China Quarterly, 143 (Sept 1995), 757-83.
    • (1995) China Quarterly , vol.143 , pp. 757-783
    • O'Brien, K.1    Li, L.2
  • 34
    • 33646947392 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The year 1998 saw two major developments in political development in China's vast countryside. Village elections were formalized and given a strong boost from the top vide the amendment to the 'Village Committee Elections Organizing Law', in trial since 1987 (see the 1998 Law at http://www.npcnews.com.cn/big5/paper12/1/class001200006/hwz64679.htm). Not only were elections prescribed, the operation of village-level administration should also follow rules of transparency and democratic management, vide Central Committee of Party and State Council, 'A Notice on the implementation of transparent administration and democratic management institutions in village level' No. 9 (1998), at assessed on 8 September
    • The year 1998 saw two major developments in political development in China's vast countryside. Village elections were formalized and given a strong boost from the top vide the amendment to the 'Village Committee Elections Organizing Law', in trial since 1987 (see the 1998 Law at http://www.npcnews.com.cn/big5/paper12/1/class001200006/hwz64679.htm). Not only were elections prescribed, the operation of village-level administration should also follow rules of transparency and democratic management, vide Central Committee of Party and State Council, 'A Notice on the implementation of transparent administration and democratic management institutions in village level', No. 9 (1998), at http://202.99.23.199/home/begin.cbs, assessed on 8 September 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 35
    • 33646906957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For discussion on the background and pre-2000 developments, and assessment of the significance, of the elections, see a group of articles in (June) by Kevin O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, Robert A. Pastor and Qingshan Tan, and Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle
    • For discussion on the background and pre-2000 developments, and assessment of the significance, of the elections, see a group of articles in The China Quarterly, 162 (June 2000) by Kevin O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, Robert A. Pastor and Qingshan Tan, and Jean C. Oi and Scott Rozelle.
    • (2000) The China Quarterly , vol.162
  • 36
    • 33646944203 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Zhongguo Nongcui Shuifei Fudan: Yige Zhengzhi Jingjixue di Kaocha'
    • Data obtained from surveys of some 6000 rural households in 10 provinces indicate that rural extraction in terms of formal agriculture taxes, local administrative fees and education charges increased in all provinces since 1993, the year of peasant resistance in Sichuan. For instance, well-off Guangdong sees the proportion of total fee burden to rural household income rise from 7.95% in 1993 to 9.67%, whilst poorer provinces rose even more from 9.85% to 13.05% (Shanxi in West China), and from 10.83% to 18.7% (Sichuan). In Anhui where pilot reform started in a few localities since mid-1990s, the rise was from 9.71% to 13.9%. See at assessed on 30 May
    • Data obtained from surveys of some 6000 rural households in 10 provinces indicate that rural extraction in terms of formal agriculture taxes, local administrative fees and education charges increased in all provinces since 1993, the year of peasant resistance in Sichuan. For instance, well-off Guangdong sees the proportion of total fee burden to rural household income rise from 7.95% in 1993 to 9.67%, whilst poorer provinces rose even more from 9.85% to 13.05% (Shanxi in West China), and from 10.83% to 18.7% (Sichuan). In Anhui where pilot reform started in a few localities since mid-1990s, the rise was from 9.71% to 13.9%. See Tao Ran, Liu Mingxing, Zhang Qi, 'Zhongguo Nongcui Shuifei Fudan: Yige Zhengzhi Jingjixue di Kaocha' (The peasants' burden in China: A political economy analysis), at http://jlin.ccer.edu.cn/download/ 2002926522340.doc, assessed on 30 May 2003.
    • (2003)
    • Ran, T.1    Mingxing, L.2    Qi, Z.3
  • 37
    • 33646914766 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'On enhancing and improving the institutional arrangements on transparency and democratic management in village level governance'
    • Nevertheless, new initiatives were attempted recently to make the political approach work. See a document jointly issued in July 2004 by the Central Committee of the Party and State Council, at assessed on 8 September New institutional details were prescribed to clarify the respective jurisdiction of the local party branch and elected village committees, and to regulate the operational details of transparent administration
    • Nevertheless, new initiatives were attempted recently to make the political approach work. See a document jointly issued in July 2004 by the Central Committee of the Party and State Council, 'On enhancing and improving the institutional arrangements on transparency and democratic management in village level governance', at http://202.99.23.199/home/ begin.cbs, assessed on 8 September 2004. New institutional details were prescribed to clarify the respective jurisdiction of the local party branch and elected village committees, and to regulate the operational details of transparent administration.
    • (2004)
  • 38
    • 33646906554 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A Decision of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee on Important Issues on Agriculture and Rural Affairs'
    • For the announcement, see passed at the Third Plenum of the Fifteenth Central Committee, 14 October The Third Plenum was explicitly referred to in the Central Document No. 7 (2000) announcing the launch of national pilot reform
    • For the announcement, see 'A Decision of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee on Important Issues on Agriculture and Rural Affairs', passed at the Third Plenum of the Fifteenth Central Committee, 14 October 1998. The Third Plenum was explicitly referred to in the Central Document No. 7 (2000) announcing the launch of national pilot reform.
    • (1998)
  • 39
    • 33646911755 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A speech at the Rural 'tax-for-fee' reform mobilization meeting in Anhui'
    • Also see 13 April in Zhang Ping, ed
    • Also see Wen Jiabao, 'A speech at the Rural 'tax-for-fee' reform mobilization meeting in Anhui', 13 April 2000, in Zhang Ping, ed., A Practical Manual, 211.
    • (2000) A Practical Manual , pp. 211
    • Wen, J.1
  • 40
    • 33646905751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A notice on formulating reform packages for the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform'
    • The three members are Xiang Huaicheng, then Minister of Finance, Chen Yaobang, then Minister of Agriculture, and Duan Yingbi, then Director of Central Leading Group on Finance and Economics. State Council Office, 20 November 1998, in Office of State Council Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' Reform Working Group, ed., (Beijing: Jingji kexue chubanshe)
    • The three members are Xiang Huaicheng, then Minister of Finance, Chen Yaobang, then Minister of Agriculture, and Duan Yingbi, then Director of Central Leading Group on Finance and Economics. State Council Office, 'A notice on formulating reform packages for the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform', 20 November 1998, in Office of State Council Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' Reform Working Group, ed., Nongcun Shuifei Gaige Gongzuo Shouce (A Manual of Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' Reform), (Beijing: Jingji kexue chubanshe, 2001), 91.
    • (2001) Nongcun Shuifei Gaige Gongzuo Shouce (A Manual of Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' Reform) , pp. 91
  • 41
    • 33646934764 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A speech at the Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' reform mobilization meeting'
    • Wen, 'A speech at the Rural 'Tax-for-Fee' reform mobilization meeting', 211-12.
    • Wen, J.1
  • 42
    • 2142647879 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Can "Tax-for-fee" Reform Reduce Rural Tension in China? The Process, Progress and Limitations'
    • (March)
    • Ray Yep, 'Can "Tax-for-fee" Reform Reduce Rural Tension in China? The Process, Progress and Limitations', The China Quarterly, 177 (March 2004), 43-70.
    • (2004) The China Quarterly , vol.177 , pp. 43-70
    • Yep, R.1
  • 44
    • 33646905499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interestingly, the wider institutional roots of the peasants' burden have been well noted by mainland researchers, though this recognition has not been translated into reform design. See for instance ed., (Taiyuan: Shanxi Jingji chubanshe)
    • Interestingly, the wider institutional roots of the peasants' burden have been well noted by mainland researchers, though this recognition has not been translated into reform design. See for instance Chen Xiwen, ed., Zhongguo Xianxiang Caizheng Yu Nongmin Zengshou Wenti Yanjiu (A Study of County and Township Finance and Issues Around Increasing Peasants' Income), (Taiyuan: Shanxi Jingji chubanshe, 2002), 135-7.
    • (2002) Zhongguo Xianxiang Caizheng Yu Nongmin Zengshou Wenti Yanjiu (A Study of County and Township Finance and Issues Around Increasing Peasants' Income) , pp. 135-137
    • Xiwen, C.1
  • 45
    • 33646904621 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Shenhua nongcui shuifei gaige xinfanglui di tansuo'
    • He Zhenyi, 'Shenhua nongcui shuifei gaige xinfanglui di tansuo' (Exploring new strategies of deepening the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform), Shuiwu Yanjiu (Taxation Affairs Research), 204, 5 (2002), 2-5
    • (2002) Shuiwu Yanjiu (Taxation Affairs Research) , vol.204 , Issue.5 , pp. 2-5
    • He, Z.1
  • 46
    • 33646910899 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Xiangzhen caizheng jidu cuixian yu nongmin fudan'
    • and Chen Xiwen is the vice-director of the State Council Development Research Center, and the Secretariat of the Central Leading Group on Economics and Finance, and thus a key figure in the formulation of central rural policy. He and Zhang are both scholars at the influential Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
    • and Zhang Jun, 'Xiangzhen caizheng jidu cuixian yu nongmin fudan' (Institutional defects of the township public finance and peasants' burden), China Rural Survey, 4 (2002), 2-13. Chen Xiwen is the vice-director of the State Council Development Research Center, and the Secretariat of the Central Leading Group on Economics and Finance, and thus a key figure in the formulation of central rural policy. He and Zhang are both scholars at the influential Chinese Academy of Social Sciences.
    • (2002) China Rural Survey , vol.4 , pp. 2-13
    • Zhang, J.1
  • 47
    • 0003406761 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Market Forces and Communist Power: Local Political Institutions and Economic Development in China'
    • Under the 'Target Responsibility System' of cadre appraisal first instituted in the mid-1990s, specific indicators were designed to assess job performance. Jobs that were regarded as the highest priority would cause the officials their position if they failed on these. Reduction of peasants' burden was added to fertility control as jobs on that 'pass or perish' list, as per State Council Notice No. 5 (2001), 'On further improving the pilot work of the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform', 24 March 2001, section 5. For discussion of the Target Responsibility System, see doctoral dissertation at Uppsala University, Department of Government
    • Under the 'Target Responsibility System' of cadre appraisal first instituted in the mid-1990s, specific indicators were designed to assess job performance. Jobs that were regarded as the highest priority would cause the officials their position if they failed on these. Reduction of peasants' burden was added to fertility control as jobs on that 'pass or perish' list, as per State Council Notice No. 5 (2001), 'On further improving the pilot work of the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform', 24 March 2001, section 5. For discussion of the Target Responsibility System, see Maria Edin, 'Market Forces and Communist Power: Local Political Institutions and Economic Development in China', doctoral dissertation at Uppsala University, Department of Government, 2000.
    • (2000)
    • Edin, M.1
  • 48
    • 84865142214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Guangdong reportedly achieved the highest burden reduction rate amongst all provinces in 2003. See a report in 9 February 'Guangdong's peasants' burdens cut by 74%, topping the list in the country'
    • Guangdong reportedly achieved the highest burden reduction rate amongst all provinces in 2003. See a report in Guangzhou Daily, 9 February 2004, 'Guangdong's peasants' burdens cut by 74%, topping the list in the country'.
    • (2004) Guangzhou Daily
  • 49
    • 33646947685 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Author's interviews with central officials involved in the formulation and implementation of the reform package, Beijing
    • Author's interviews with central officials involved in the formulation and implementation of the reform package, Beijing, 2003-4.
    • (2003)
  • 50
    • 33646907220 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'An opinion on consolidating the establishment at the city/county/township levels'
    • This is obtained from author's interviews with central officials on establishment control at Beijing, and with the 'targets' of the exercise, local officials at the township and county levels in Hubei and Anhui, 2003-4. The 20% figure is stated in Central Committee and State Council, Document No. 30 26 December 2000
    • This is obtained from author's interviews with central officials on establishment control at Beijing, and with the 'targets' of the exercise, local officials at the township and county levels in Hubei and Anhui, 2003-4. The 20% figure is stated in Central Committee and State Council, 'An opinion on consolidating the establishment at the city/ county/township levels', Document No. 30 (2000), 26 December 2000.
    • (2000)
  • 51
    • 33646939127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • These include 39.6 billion yuan of designated transfer payments announced in the 2004 Budget by Finance Minister Jin Renqing in March 2004 assessed on 7 September) an additional 10 billion yuan of direct subsidies to grain growers, and additional subsidies (of unspecified amount subject to central-local negotiation) to selected provinces piloting the stepped up reduction/suspension of Agriculture Tax in 2004
    • These include 39.6 billion yuan of designated transfer payments announced in the 2004 Budget by Finance Minister Jin Renqing in March 2004 (http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/ 2004-03/18/content_1371660.htm, assessed on 7 September 2004), an additional 10 billion yuan of direct subsidies to grain growers, and additional subsidies (of unspecified amount subject to central-local negotiation) to selected provinces piloting the stepped up reduction/ suspension of Agriculture Tax in 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 52
    • 33646945450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An example was a July 2004 report by the National Development and Reform Commission, which reported 20,000 cases of illegal rural fees, totaling over 400 million yuan, discovered during a national survey of rural fees in the first half of 2004. The survey focused on fees on education, marriage registration, fertility control and immunization of pigs, as reported in 23 July 2004, assessed on 20 August at
    • An example was a July 2004 report by the National Development and Reform Commission, which reported 20,000 cases of illegal rural fees, totaling over 400 million yuan, discovered during a national survey of rural fees in the first half of 2004. The survey focused on fees on education, marriage registration, fertility control and immunization of pigs, as reported in China Youth Daily (Beijing), 23 July 2004, assessed on 20 August 2004 at http://www.ccrs.org.cn/NEWSgl/ReadNews.asp?NewsID= 8374&BigClassID=8&SmallClassID=9&SpecialID=0
    • (2004) China Youth Daily (Beijing)
  • 53
    • 33646941388 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Opinions on policies to enhance the income growth of peasants', jointly issued by Chinese Communist Party Central Committee and State Council on the last day of 2003. The formulation and drafting process kicked off in a Politburo meeting in September 2003, producing the first draft in mid-November and the main contents nailed down by mid-December. See a report in 13 January at assessed on 6 September 2004
    • 'Opinions on policies to enhance the income growth of peasants', jointly issued by Chinese Communist Party Central Committee and State Council on the last day of 2003. The formulation and drafting process kicked off in a Politburo meeting in September 2003, producing the first draft in mid-November and the main contents nailed down by mid-December. See a report in Liaowang (Beijing), 13 January 2004, at http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2004-01/13/content_1273182.htm, assessed on 6 September 2004.
    • (2004) Liaowang (Beijing)
  • 54
    • 33646945715 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A notice on some issues on the further reduction of Agriculture Tax and suspension of Agriculture Tax collection in selected piloting provinces'
    • Total budgetary outlay from the central coffers to agriculture and rural areas was planned to increase by 20% in 2004 over 2003, to a total of around 150 billion yuan, as stated in Finance Minister's Budget Speech 2004 to the National People's Congress, March 2004. This purportedly would include the 10 billion yuan of direct subsidies to grain-growers, and the additional transfer payments to provinces compensating for lost revenue from stepped up reduction/suspension of Agriculture Tax. Ministry of Finance Notice No. 77 (2004), 6 April
    • Total budgetary outlay from the central coffers to agriculture and rural areas was planned to increase by 20% in 2004 over 2003, to a total of around 150 billion yuan, as stated in Finance Minister's Budget Speech 2004 to the National People's Congress, March 2004. This purportedly would include the 10 billion yuan of direct subsidies to grain-growers, and the additional transfer payments to provinces compensating for lost revenue from stepped up reduction/suspension of Agriculture Tax. Ministry of Finance Notice No. 77 (2004), 'A notice on some issues on the further reduction of Agriculture Tax and suspension of Agriculture Tax collection in selected piloting provinces', 6 April 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 55
    • 33646919904 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The direct impact of the lowering of Agriculture Tax rate and the suspension of tax collection in selected provinces is estimated to lower total extraction by 11.8 billion yuan. See Finance Minister's Budget Speech 2004 to the National People's Congress, March
    • The direct impact of the lowering of Agriculture Tax rate and the suspension of tax collection in selected provinces is estimated to lower total extraction by 11.8 billion yuan. See Finance Minister's Budget Speech 2004 to the National People's Congress, March 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 56
    • 33646942828 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 57
    • 33646924396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 58
    • 1842630543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Political Trust in Rural China'
    • (April)
    • Lianjiang Li, 'Political Trust in Rural China', Modern China, 30, 2 (April 2004), 228-58
    • (2004) Modern China , vol.30 , Issue.2 , pp. 228-258
    • Li, L.1
  • 59
    • 0030446140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Villagers and popular resistance in contemporary China'
    • Jan
    • Lianjiang Li and Kevin O'Brien, 'Villagers and popular resistance in contemporary China', Modern China, 22, Jan (1996), 28-61
    • (1996) Modern China , vol.22 , pp. 28-61
    • Li, L.1    O'Brien, K.2
  • 60
    • 0038053785 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside'
    • (July)
    • Kevin O'Brien, 'Collective Action in the Chinese Countryside', China Journal, 48 (July 2002), 139-54
    • (2002) China Journal , vol.48 , pp. 139-154
    • O'Brien, K.1
  • 63
    • 33646915821 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Political Trust'
    • For example, and the literature cited therein
    • For example, Li, 'Political Trust', 248-9 and the literature cited therein.
    • Li, L.1
  • 64
    • 33646912279 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'A notice on further implementing, the tax relief policy to enhance peasant income growth'
    • Other reliefs are (1) exempting peasants' turnover of sales of agricultural produce of less than 5000 yuan per month (or 200 yuan daily) from value-added tax and (2) exempting 'mobile' rural petty traders without a fixed trading venue from registration with the tax authorities. See National Taxation Bureau Document No. 13 (2004), 20 January. full text at assessed on 5 September 2004
    • Other reliefs are (1) exempting peasants' turnover of sales of agricultural produce of less than 5000 yuan per month (or 200 yuan daily) from value-added tax and (2) exempting 'mobile' rural petty traders without a fixed trading venue from registration with the tax authorities. See National Taxation Bureau Document No. 13 (2004), 'A notice on further implementing, the tax relief policy to enhance peasant income growth', 20 January. 2004, full text at http://www.chinatax.gov.cn/view.jsp?code=200402101421438335, assessed on 5 September 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 65
    • 33646912551 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A second notice was issued in March to launch a nationwide examination to monitor the implementation, suggesting the complexities and difficulties in implementation. See
    • A second notice was issued in March to launch a nationwide examination to monitor the implementation, suggesting the complexities and difficulties in implementation. See http://www.chinatax.gov.cn/ view.jsp?code=200404131640496998.
  • 66
    • 33646901686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Author's interviews, Wuhan
    • Author's interviews, Wuhan, 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 67
    • 33646932489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chen proceeded on elaborating some of his ideas of the new system in the interview, as reported in assessed at on 14 August
    • Chen proceeded on elaborating some of his ideas of the new system in the interview, as reported in Zhongguo Paodao Zhoukan, assessed at http://www.mlcool.com/html/ns001679.htm, on 14 August 2003.
    • (2003) Zhongguo Paodao Zhoukan
  • 68
    • 33646941387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Tiaozheng guomin jingji shuoru fengpei guanxi, zhuanjian xindi nongmin shuifei fudan jidu'
    • One such proposal is in
    • One such proposal is in Li Zhengzhong, 'Tiaozheng guomin jingji shuoru fengpei guanxi, zhuanjian xindi nongmin shuifei fudan jidu' (Adjust redistributive relations in national income, Create a new tax system for peasants), China Rural Economy, 2 (2003), 35-40.
    • (2003) China Rural Economy , vol.2 , pp. 35-40
    • Li, Z.1
  • 69
    • 33646912005 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April
    • Author's interviews, Beijing, April 2004.
    • (2004)
  • 70
    • 33646901402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taking Agriculture Tax and Special Product Tax together, tax revenues dropped from the high point of 4.23% of total national budgetary revenue in 1996 (31.3 billion out of 740.8 billion yuan), to 2.57% in 1999, 2.23% in 2000, 1.75% in 2001, and 2.23% in 2002. In absolute terms, total national budgetary revenue increased by 155% between 1996 and 2002, to nearly 1900 billion yuan, whilst tax revenue from agricultural products stagnated, even decreasing by almost 9% from 1996 to 2001 before seeing a rise in 2002, when many provinces started implementing the tax-for-fee reform and thus channeling formerly extrabudgetary fee revenue to tax revenues. See 338
    • Taking Agriculture Tax and Special Product Tax together, tax revenues dropped from the high point of 4.23% of total national budgetary revenue in 1996 (31.3 billion out of 740.8 billion yuan), to 2.57% in 1999, 2.23% in 2000, 1.75% in 2001, and 2.23% in 2002. In absolute terms, total national budgetary revenue increased by 155% between 1996 and 2002, to nearly 1900 billion yuan, whilst tax revenue from agricultural products stagnated, even decreasing by almost 9% from 1996 to 2001 before seeing a rise in 2002, when many provinces started implementing the tax-for-fee reform and thus channeling formerly extrabudgetary fee revenue to tax revenues. See China Finance Yearbook 2003, 338, 344.
    • (2003) China Finance Yearbook , pp. 344
  • 71
    • 33646932489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an example of an analysis of the 'affordability' of phasing out Agriculture Tax, see Chen's interview
    • For an example of an analysis of the 'affordability' of phasing out Agriculture Tax, see Chen's interview, footnote 38.
    • (2003) Zhongguo Paodao Zhoukan
  • 72
    • 33646933598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Central Document No. 7 (2000) Section 3, clause (1), gives a list of: (1) the 5 township 'coordination' (tongchou) fees, (2) the 3 village 'retention' (tiliu) fees, (3) education levies and surcharges, and (4) all other kinds of administrative fees, charges and government funds that targeted specifically peasants. The first 3 categories had been introduced incrementally since 1980s, with central endorsement, to supplement the inadequate budgetary funds at township and village levels. The fourth was a diverse group with origins at central/provincial/local levels
    • Central Document No. 7 (2000), Section 3, clause (1), gives a list of: (1) the 5 township 'coordination' (tongchou) fees, (2) the 3 village 'retention' (tiliu) fees, (3) education levies and surcharges, and (4) all other kinds of administrative fees, charges and government funds that targeted specifically peasants. The first 3 categories had been introduced incrementally since 1980s, with central endorsement, to supplement the inadequate budgetary funds at township and village levels. The fourth was a diverse group with origins at central/ provincial/local levels.
  • 73
    • 33646940520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'On the subject of peasant-related fees in the regions piloting the rural fee-to-tax reform'
    • Ministry of Finance Notice No. 10 4 July 2000. In addition to administrative fees, the notice also elaborates guidelines on the imposition of user charges, which are supposedly market-regulated and do not form part of government revenue. In practice the boundary is ambiguous and abuses abound
    • Ministry of Finance Notice No. 10 (2000), 'On the subject of peasant-related fees in the regions piloting the rural fee-to-tax reform', 4 July 2000. In addition to administrative fees, the notice also elaborates guidelines on the imposition of user charges, which are supposedly market-regulated and do not form part of government revenue. In practice the boundary is ambiguous and abuses abound.
    • (2000)
  • 74
    • 33646928449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'The Second Open Letter to Peasant Friends in Hubei'
    • The list was contained in a tiny pamphlet supposedly sent to villagers with the title, by Hubei Party Committee and the Provincial Government, dated 23 October The 9 departments are: agriculture, forestry, public security, education, family planning, land, construction, civil affairs, and water. The list was confirmed to be still up-to-date in 2004. Author's interviews, Wuhan, 2004
    • The list was contained in a tiny pamphlet supposedly sent to villagers with the title, 'The Second Open Letter to Peasant Friends in Hubei', by Hubei Party Committee and the Provincial Government, dated 23 October 2002. The 9 departments are: Agriculture, forestry, public security, education, family planning, land, construction, civil affairs, and water. The list was confirmed to be still up-to-date in 2004. Author's interviews, Wuhan, 2004.
    • (2002)
  • 75
    • 33646916123 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For reports on the resurgence of rural fees after reform, see for instance and http://www/aweb.com.cn/2003/7/8/20037883858.htm, assessed on 14 September
    • For reports on the resurgence of rural fees after reform, see for instance http://www.ccrs.org.cn/newsgl/ReadNews.asp?NewsID=3986, and http://www/aweb.com.cn/2003/7/8/20037883858.htm, assessed on 14 September 2003.
    • (2003)
  • 76
    • 33646904337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The urgency of abolishing rural fees and stamping out abuses was a common theme in various central documents issued since 2000
    • The urgency of abolishing rural fees and stamping out abuses was a common theme in various central documents issued since 2000.
  • 77
    • 33646924395 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'On Approving a notice by the Ministry of Agriculture, etc. on the issue of reducing peasants' burden'
    • State Council Notice No. 50 29 May 2003
    • State Council Notice No. 50 (2003), 'On Approving a notice by the Ministry of Agriculture, etc. on the issue of reducing peasants' burden', 29 May 2003.
    • (2003)
  • 78
    • 33646914792 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This is the observation obtained from a search through internet of provincial responses. For a typical example, see a notice by the Beijing Municipal Government issued on 2 July assessed at on 22 August 2003
    • This is the observation obtained from a search through internet of provincial responses. For a typical example, see a notice by the Beijing Municipal Government issued on 2 July 2003, assessed at http://www.china.org.cn on 22 August 2003.
    • (2003)
  • 79
    • 33646927066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • All alteration of fee levels should be approved by the Provincial Fiscal Bureau and Price Bureau. Yet in practice the departments often made their own decisions. Author's interviews, Wuhan 2004
    • All alteration of fee levels should be approved by the Provincial Fiscal Bureau and Price Bureau. Yet in practice the departments often made their own decisions. Author's interviews, Wuhan, 2004.
  • 80
    • 33646932502 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The reference to decentralized decisions is found towards the end of the first major section of the Document, which addresses the 'significance' of the reform
    • The reference to decentralized decisions is found towards the end of the first major section of the Document, which addresses the 'significance' of the reform.
  • 81
    • 84890905389 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Agriculture Tax Regulation 1958 specifies the tax rates for various provinces and a national average of 15.5% and has remained in force nominally until fee-to-tax reform sets in. The effective tax rates have seen a continuous decline to some 2.9% by year 2000, due to a combination of factors. See eds., Beijing: Zhongguo Zhigong chubanshe
    • The Agriculture Tax Regulation 1958 specifies the tax rates for various provinces and a national average of 15.5% and has remained in force nominally until fee-to-tax reform sets in. The effective tax rates have seen a continuous decline to some 2.9% by year 2000, due to a combination of factors. See He Kaiyin and Sun Li, eds., Zhongguo Nongcun Shuifei Gaige Chutan (A Preliminary Analysis of the Tax and Fees Reform in Chinese Villages), Beijing: Zhongguo Zhigong chubanshe, 2000, 131-2.
    • (2000) Zhongguo Nongcun Shuifei Gaige Chutan (A Preliminary Analysis of the Tax and Fees Reform in Chinese Villages) , pp. 131-132
    • He, K.1    Li, S.2
  • 82
    • 33646929592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The regime consisted of three components: (1) a raise of tax rate from a de facto national average of 3% to a cap of 7%; (2) provincial discretion on taxes on 'special products'; and (3) up to 20% of local surcharge on agricultural tax to compensate for the abolition of traditional village levies. See Central Document No. 7 (2000), section 3
    • The regime consisted of three components: (1) a raise of tax rate from a de facto national average of 3% to a cap of 7%; (2) provincial discretion on taxes on 'special products'; and (3) up to 20% of local surcharge on agricultural tax to compensate for the abolition of traditional village levies. See Central Document No. 7 (2000), section 3.
  • 83
    • 33646938105 scopus 로고
    • 'A regulation on the imposition of Agriculture Tax on agricultural special products'
    • State Council Document No. 143, 30 January
    • State Council Document No. 143, 'A regulation on the imposition of Agriculture Tax on agricultural special products', 30 January 1994.
    • (1994)
  • 84
    • 33646899683 scopus 로고
    • 'On the details of implementation of the Agricultural Special Products Tax'
    • Ministry of Finance Notice No. 94, 24 March clause 8. The phrase 'where Agriculture Tax normally applies' implies the existence of areas where the Tax does not normally apply. This usually refers to newly formed land or peripheral pieces of land newly brought under cultivation, and have yet to be brought under the tax system, or areas that for various reasons are excluded from agricultural taxes. Agricultural produce from these lands goes untaxed
    • Ministry of Finance Notice No. 94, 'On the details of implementation of the Agricultural Special Products Tax', 24 March 1994, clause 8. The phrase 'where Agriculture Tax normally applies' implies the existence of areas where the Tax does not normally apply. This usually refers to newly formed land or peripheral pieces of land newly brought under cultivation, and have yet to be brought under the tax system, or areas that for various reasons are excluded from agricultural taxes. Agricultural produce from these lands goes untaxed.
    • (1994)
  • 85
    • 33646914493 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'The implementation plan of rural tax for fee reform in Shunde'
    • Shunde City Government Notice No. 35 section 2, clause (5). Fish and flowers were two major agricultural products in Shunde
    • Shunde City Government Notice No. 35 (2002), 'The implementation plan of rural tax for fee reform in Shunde', section 2, clause (5). Fish and flowers were two major agricultural products in Shunde.
    • (2002)
  • 86
    • 33646943357 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Aquatic products and flowers attracted a flat tax rate of 8% under the Agricultural Special Products Tax, whilst the upper ceiling of Agriculture Tax (regular) was only 7%. When 20% local surcharge was added, the difference would be 9.6% versus 8.4%
    • Aquatic products and flowers attracted a flat tax rate of 8% under the Agricultural Special Products Tax, whilst the upper ceiling of Agriculture Tax (regular) was only 7%. When 20% local surcharge was added, the difference would be 9.6% versus 8.4%.
  • 87
    • 33646905184 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'On the pilot scheme of shifting the Special Products Tax to Agriculture Tax'
    • One exception is tobacco, the tax rate of which remains 20%. Anhui Provincial Government Notice, 31 March
    • One exception is tobacco, the tax rate of which remains 20%. Anhui Provincial Government Notice, 'On the pilot scheme of shifting the Special Products Tax to Agriculture Tax', 31 March 2003.
    • (2003)
  • 88
    • 33646944221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Wen Jiabo emphasized to continue the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform'
    • 3 April Xinhua News, assessed on 5 August 2003 at
    • 'Wen Jiabo emphasized to continue the rural 'tax-for-fee' reform', 3 April 2003, Xinhua News, assessed on 5 August 2003 at http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/ 2003-04/03/content_814822.htm.
    • (2003)
  • 89
    • 33646904060 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'On a few issues relating to the Agricultural Special Products Tax in rural 'tax-for-fee' reform areas'
    • Ministry of Finance and National Taxation Bureau Notice No. 136, 10 June
    • Ministry of Finance and National Taxation Bureau Notice No. 136, 'On a few issues relating to the Agricultural Special Products Tax in rural 'tax-for-fee' reform areas', 10 June 2003.
    • (2003)
  • 90
    • 33646942541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'The rural 'tax-for-fee' reform plan in Guangdong'
    • 7 July
    • 'The rural 'tax-for-fee' reform plan in Guangdong', Guangzhou Daily, 7 July 2003.
    • (2003) Guangzhou Daily
  • 91
    • 0001719854 scopus 로고
    • 'Synthesizing the implementation literature: The ambiguity-conflict model of policy implementation'
    • (April)
    • Richard E. Matland, 'Synthesizing the implementation literature: The ambiguity-conflict model of policy implementation', Journal of Public Administration Research and Policy, 5 (April 1995), 145-74.
    • (1995) Journal of Public Administration Research and Policy , vol.5 , pp. 145-174
    • Matland, R.E.1
  • 92
    • 0000554548 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Selective policy implementation in rural China'
    • For a similar, but weaker, attempt in the Chinese context, see (January)
    • For a similar, but weaker, attempt in the Chinese context, see Kevin J. O'Brien and Lianjiang Li, 'Selective policy implementation in rural China', Comparative Politics, 31, 2 (January 1999), 167-86.
    • (1999) Comparative Politics , vol.31 , Issue.2 , pp. 167-186
    • O'Brien, K.J.1    Li, L.2
  • 93
    • 84974172271 scopus 로고
    • 'The problem of institutional constraint'
    • Margaret Archer reviews the Individual account, the Collectivist account and the Structuration Theory, which conflate the structure-agency relation in different directions in Realist Social Theory. For a similar argument against conflation, without using the language, see (August)
    • Margaret Archer reviews the Individual account, the Collectivist account and the Structuration Theory, which conflate the structure-agency relation in different directions in Realist Social Theory. For a similar argument against conflation, without using the language, see Robert Grafstein, 'The problem of institutional constraint', Journal of Politics, 50, 3 (August 1988).
    • (1988) Journal of Politics , vol.50 , Issue.3
    • Grafstein, R.1
  • 94
    • 33646947130 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Sorting out the details: Structure, agency and interactions in China's local political economy'
    • Another attempt to meet the theoretical challenge is made in the context of the local political economy of Tianjin, in paper presented at the 2004 Annual Conference of the British International Association, December Warwick, U.K
    • Another attempt to meet the theoretical challenge is made in the context of the local political economy of Tianjin, in Linda Chelan Li and Hongyan Qin, 'Sorting out the details: Structure, agency and interactions in China's local political economy', paper presented at the 2004 Annual Conference of the British International Association, December 2004, Warwick, U.K.
    • (2004)
    • Li, L.C.1    Qin, H.2
  • 95
    • 0003727383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press) for an example of implementation studies employing the principal-agent framework outside the China context
    • See John Brehm and Scott Gates, Working, Shirking, Sabotage: Bureaucratic Response to a Democratic Public, (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1997), for an example of implementation studies employing the principal-agent framework outside the China context.
    • (1997) Working, Shirking, Sabotage: Bureaucratic Response to a Democratic Public
    • Brehm, J.1    Gates, S.2
  • 96
    • 33646906675 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 'Sorting out the details'
    • For more on this point, see
    • For more on this point, see Li and Qin, 'Sorting out the details'.
    • Li, L.C.1    Qin, H.2


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