Adequacies and deficiencies of alpine and subalpine treeline studies in the national parks of the western USA

Progress in Physical Geography

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 19-42

  Whitesides, Clayton J ^a   Butler, David R ^a  

^a TEXAS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

alpine treeline; biogeography; geomorphology; mountains; national parks

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECT; BIOGEOGRAPHY; CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL DISTURBANCE; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; GEOMORPHOLOGY; HUMAN ACTIVITY; MOUNTAIN REGION; NATIONAL PARK; PROXY CLIMATE RECORD; TREELINE;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 79551544282     PISSN: 03091333     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0309133310384642     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Acker SA, Franklin JF, Greene SE, Thomas TB, Van Pelt R., and Bible KJ (2006) Two decades of stability and change in old-growth forest at Mount Rainier National Park. Northwest Science 80: 65-72.
2. Agee JK and Smith L. (1984) Subalpine tree reestablishment after fire in the Olympic Mountains, Washington. Ecology 65: 810-819.
3. Allen RB, Peet RK, and Baker WL (1991) Gradient analysis of latitudinal variation in southern Rocky Mountain forests. Journal of Biogeography 18: 123-139.
4. Anderson RS (1990) Holocene forest development and paleoclimates within the central Sierra Nevada, California. Journal of Ecology 78: 470-489.
5. Anderson RS (1996) Postglacial biogeography of Sierra lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. murrayana) in California. Ecoscience 3: 343-351.
6. Arno SF and Gruell GE (1983) Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management, 36: 332-336.
7. Arno SF and Gruell GE (1986) Douglas-fir encroachment into mountain grasslands in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management 39: 272-276.
8. Bader MY and Ruijten JJA (2008) A topography-based model of forest cover at the alpine tree line in the tropical Andes. Journal of Biogeography 28: 711-723.
9. Bader MY, Rietkerk M., and Bregt AK (2007a) Vegetation structure and temperature regimes of tropical alpine treelines. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 39: 353-364.
10. Bader MY, van Geloof I., and Rietkerk M. (2007b) High solar radiation hinders tree regeneration above the alpine treeline in northern Ecuador. Plant Ecology 191: 33-45.
11. Baker BB and Moseley RK (2007) Advancing treeline and retreating glaciers: Implications for conservation in Yunnan, P.R. China. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 39: 200-209.
12. Baker WL and Weisberg PJ (1995) Landscape analysis of the forest-tundra ecotone in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado. Professional Geographer 47: 361-375.
13. Baker WL and Weisberg PJ (1997) Using GIS to model tree population parameters in the Rocky Mountain National Park forest-tundra ecotone. Journal of Biogeography 24: 513-526.
14. Bay RF and Ebersole JJ (2006) Success of turf transplants in restoring alpine trails, Colorado, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 38: 173-178.
15. Beaty RM and Taylor AH (2001) Spatial and temporal variation of fire regimes in a mixed conifer forest landscape, southern Cascades, California, USA. Journal of Biogeography 28: 955-966.
16. Beever EA, Pyke DA, Chambers JC, Landau F., and Smith SD (2005) Monitoring temporal change in riparian vegetation of Great Basin National Park. Western North American Naturalist 65: 382-402.
17. Bekker MF and Taylor AH (2001) Gradient analysis of fire regimes in montane forests of the southern Cascade Range, Thousand Lakes Wilderness, California, USA. Plant Ecology 155: 15-28.
18. Benedict NB (1983) Plant associations of subalpine meadows, Sequoia National Park, California. Arctic and Alpine Research 15: 383-396.
19. Biek D. (2000) Flora of Mount Rainier National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press.
20. Bunn AG, Waggoner LA, and Graumlich LJ (2005) Topographic mediation of growth in high elevation foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana Grev. et Balf.) forests in the Sierra Nevada, USA. Global Ecology and Biogeography 14: 103-114.
21. Butler DR (1979) Snow avalanche path terrain and vegetation, Glacier National Park, Montana. Arctic and Alpine Research 11: 17-32.
22. Butler DR (1985) Vegetational and geomorphic change on snow avalanche paths, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Great Basin Naturalist 45: 313-317.
23. Butler DR and Butler WD (2009) The geomorphic effects of gophers on soil characteristics and sediment compaction: A case study from alpine treeline, Sangre de Cristo Mountains, Colorado, USA. The Open Geology Journal 3: 82-89.
24. Butler DR and DeChano LM (2001) Environmental change in Glacier National Park, Montana: An assessment through repeat photography from fire lookouts. Physical Geography 22: 291-304.
25. Butler DR and Malanson GP (1985) A reconstruction of snow-avalanche characteristics in Montana, USA, using vegetative indicators. Journal of Glaciology 31: 185-187.
26. Butler DR and Walsh SJ (1990) Lithologic, structural, and topographic influences on snow-avalanche path location, eastern Glacier National Park, Montana. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 80: 362- 378.
27. Butler DR and Walsh SJ (1994) Site characteristics of debris flows and their relationship to alpine treeline. Physical Geography 15: 181-199.
28. Butler DR, Malanson GP, Bekker MF, and Resler LM (2003) Lithologic, structural, and geomorphic controls on ribbon forest patterns in a glaciated mountain environment. Geomorphology 55: 203-217.
29. Butler DR, Malanson GP, and Cairns DM (1994) Stability of alpine treeline in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Phytocoenologia 22: 485-500.
30. Butler DR, Malanson GP, and Resler LM (2004) Turf-banked terrace treads and risers, turf exfoliation and possible relationships with advancing treeline. Catena 58: 259-274.
31. Butler DR, Malanson GP, Walsh SJ, and Fagre DB (2007) Influences of geomorphology and geology on alpine treeline in the American west-more important than climatic influences? Physical Geography 28: 434-450.
32. Cairns DM (2001) Patterns of winter desiccation in krummholz forms of Abies lasiocarpa at treeline sites in Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Geografiska Annaler Series A-Physical Geography 83A: 157-168.
33. Cairns DM and Waldron JD (2003) Sigmoid wave transitions at alpine treeline. Geografiska Annaler Series A - Physical Geography 85A: 115-126.
34. Camarero JJ and Gutiérrez E. (2004) Pace and patterns of recent treeline dynamics: Response of ecotones to climatic variability in the Spanish Pyrenees. Climatic Change 63: 181-200.
35. Case MJ and Peterson DL (2005) Fine-scale variability in growth-climate relationships of Douglas-fir, North Cascade Range, Washington. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 35: 2743-2755.
36. Chappell CB and Agee JK (1996) Fire severity and tree seedling establishment in Abies magnifica forests, southern Cascades, Oregon. Ecological Applications 6, 628-640.
37. Chester CC (2007) Rocky Mountains. In: Robbins P (ed.) Encyclopedia of Environment and Society. London: SAGE, 4: 1529-1530.
38. Clague JJ, Wohlfarth B., Ayotte J., Eriksson M., Hutchinson I., Mathewes RW,et al.(2004) Late Holocene environmental change at treeline in the northern Coast Mountains, British Columbia, Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 23: 2413-2431.
39. Clarkson BD (1990) A review of vegetation development following recent (<450 years) volcanic disturbance in North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 14: 59-71.
40. Clements FE (1916) Plant Succession: An Analysis of the Development of Vegetation. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute.
41. Conlin DB and Ebersole JJ (2001) Restoration of an alpine disturbance: Differential success of species in turf transplants, Colorado, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33: 340-347.
42. Coughenour MB and Singer FJ (1991) The concept of overgrazing and its application to Yellowstone's Northern Range. In: Keiter RB and Boyce MS (eds) The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 209-230.
43. Cullen LE, Stewart GH, Duncan RP, and Palmer JG (2001) Disturbance and climate warming influences on New Zealand Nothofagus tree-line population dynamics. Journal of Ecology 89: 1061-1071.
44. Currey DR (1965) An ancient bristlecone pine stand in eastern Nevada. Ecology 46: 564-566.
45. Daly C. and Shankman D. (1985) Seedling establishment by conifers above treeline on Niwot Ridge, Front Range, Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 17: 389-400.
46. Danby RK and Hik DS (2007a) Responses of white spruce (Picea glauca) to experimental warming at a subarctic alpine treeline. Global Change Biology 13: 437-451.
47. Danby RK and Hik DS (2007b) Variability, contingency and rapid change in recent subarctic alpine treeline dynamics. Journal of Ecology 95: 352-363.
48. Daniels LD and Veblen TT (2003) Regional and local effects of disturbance and climate on altitudinal treelines in northern Patagonia. Journal of Vegetation Science 14: 733-742.
49. Daniels LD and Veblen TT (2004) Spatiotemporal influences of climate on altitudinal treeline in northern Patagonia. Ecology 85: 1284-1296.
50. Despain DG (1990) Yellowstone Vegetation: Consequences of Environment and History in a Natural Setting. Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart.
51. Douglas GW and Ballard TM (1971) Effects of fire on alpine plant communities in the north Cascades, Washington. Ecology 52: 1058-1064.
52. Dunwiddie PW (1977) Recent tree invasion of subalpine meadows in the Wind River Mountains, Wyoming. Arctic and Alpine Research 9: 393-399.
53. Ellwood BB (1996) Geology and America's national park areas. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
54. Erschbamer B., Kiebacher T., Mallaun M., and Unterluggauer P. (2009) Short-term signals of climate change along an altitudinal gradient in the South Alps. Plant Ecology 202: 79-89.
55. Ettl GJ and Peterson DL (1995) Growth response of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) to climate in the Olympic Mountains, Washington, USA. Global Change Biology 1: 213-230.
56. Fagre DB, Peterson DL, and Hessl AE (2003) Taking the pulse of mountains: Ecosystem responses to climatic variability. Climatic Change 59: 263-282.
57. Ferrar PJ, Cochrane, PM, and Slatyer RO (1988) Factors influencing germination and establishment of Eucalyptus pauciflora near the alpine tree line. Tree Physiology 4: 27-43.
58. Franklin JF, Moir WH, Douglas GW, and Wiberg C. (1971) Invasion of subalpine meadows by trees in the Cascade Range, Washington and Oregon. Arctic and Alpine Research 3: 215-224.
59. Gehrig-Fasel J., Guisan A., and Zimmermann NE (2007) Tree line shifts in the Swiss Alps: climate change or land abandonment? Journal of Vegetation Science 18: 571-582.
60. Global Observation Research Initiative In Alpine Environments (GLORIA) (2009a) The purpose of GLORIA. Available at: http://www.gloria.ac.at/?a=2.
61. Global Observation Research Initiative In Alpine Environments (GLORIA) (2009b) A brief history of GLORIA. Available at: http://www.gloria.ac.at/?a=11.
62. Grabherr G., Gottfried M., and Pauli H. (2000) GLORIA: A global observation initiative in alpine environments. Mountain Research and Development 20: 190-191.
63. Greenland D. (1989) The climate of Niwot Ridge, Front Range, Colorado, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 21: 380-391.
64. Grissino-Mayer HD, Baisan, CH, and Swetnam TW (1998) A Multicentury Reconstruction of Precipitation for Great Sand Dunes National Monument, Southwestern Colorado. Washington, DC: National Park Service.
65. Guarín A. and Taylor AH (2005) Drought triggered tree mortality in mixed conifer forests in Yosemite National Park, California, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 218: 229-244.
66. Hadley KS (1987) Vascular alpine plant distributions within the Central and Southern Rocky Mountains, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 19: 242-251.
67. Harris DV and Kiver EP (1985) The Geologic Story of the National Parks and Monuments Fourth Edition. New York: Wiley.
68. Harsch MA, Hulme PE, McGlone MS, and Duncan RP (2009) Are treelines advancing? A global meta-analysis of treeline response to climate warming. Ecology Letters 12: 1040-1049.
69. Heath JP (1967) Primary conifer succession, Lassen Volcanic National Park. Ecology 48: 270-275.
70. Henderson JA (1973) Composition, distribution and succession of subalpine meadows in Mount Ranier National Park. PhD dissertation. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University.
71. Hessl AE and Baker WL (1997) Spruce and fir regeneration and climate in the forest-tundra ecotone of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 29: 173-183.
72. Hiller B. and Müterthies A. (2005) Humus forms and reforestation of an abandoned pasture at the alpine timberline (upper Engadine, central Alps, Switzerland). In: Broll G and Keplin B (eds) Mountain Ecosystems: Studies in Treeline Ecology. New York: Springer, 203-218.
73. Holtmeier FK and Broll G. (1992) The influence of tree islands and microtopography on pedoecological conditions in the forest-alpine tundra ecosystem on Niwot Ridge, Colorado, Front Range, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 24: 216-228.
74. Holtmeier FK and Broll G. (2005) Sensitivity and response of northern hemisphere altitudinal and polar treelines to environmental change at landscape and local scales. Global Ecology and Biogeography 14: 395-410.
75. Jackson MT and Faller A. (1973) Structural analysis and dynamics of the plant communities of Wizard Island, Crater Lake National Park. Ecological Monograph 43: 441-461.
76. Jakubos B. and Romme WH (1993) Invasion of subalpine meadows by lodgepole pine in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 25: 382-390.
77. Kirchhefer AJ (2005) A discontinuous tree-ring record AD 320-1994 from Dividalen, Norway: Inferences on climate and treeline history. In: Broll G and Keplin B (eds) Mountain Ecosystems: Studies in Treeline Ecology. New York: Springer, 219-236.
78. Klasner FL and Fagre DB (2002) A half century of change in alpine treeline patterns at Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 34: 49-56.
79. Körner C. (1998) A re-assessment of high elevation treeline positions and their explanation. Oecologia 115: 445-459.
80. Körner C. and Paulsen J. (2004) A world-wide study of high altitude treeline temperatures. Journal of Biogeography 31: 713-732.
81. Lloyd AH and Graumlich LJ (1997) Holocene dynamics of treeline forests in the Sierra Nevada. Ecology 78: 1199-1210.
82. Luckman BH (1990) Mountain areas and global change: A view from the Canadian Rockies. Mountain Research and Development 10: 183-195.
83. Luckman BH and Kavanagh T. (2000) Impact of climate fluctuations on mountain environments in the Canadian Rockies. Ambio 29: 371-380.
84. Malanson GP and Butler DR (1984) Transverse patterns of vegetation on avalanche paths in the northern Rocky Mountains, Montana. Great Basin Naturalist 44: 454-458.
85. Malanson GP and Butler DR (1986) Floristic patterns on avalanche paths in the Northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Physical Geography 7: 231-238.
86. Malanson GP and Butler DR (1994) Tree-tundra competitive hierarchies, soil fertility gradients, and treeline elevation in Glacier National Park, Montana. Physical Geography 15: 166-180.
87. Malanson GP, Butler DR, Cairns DM, Welsh TE, and Resler LM (2002) Variability in an edaphic indicator in alpine tundra. Catena 49: 203-215.
88. Malanson GP, Butler DR, Fagre DB, Walsh SJ, Tomback DF, Daniels LD,et al.(2007) Alpine treeline of Western North America: Linking organism-to-landscape dynamics. Physical Geography 28: 378-396.
89. Mark AF and Baylis GTS (1975) Impact of deer on Secretary Island, Fiordland, New Zealand. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society 22: 19-24.
90. Millar CI and Westfall RD (2007) Rock glaciers and related periglacial landforms in the Sierra Nevada, CA USA: Inventory, distribution and climatic relationships. Quaternary International 188: 90-104.
91. Millar CI, Westfall RD, Delany DL, King JC, and Graumlich LJ (2004) Response of subalpine conifers in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, to 20th-century warming and decadal climate variability. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 36: 181-200.
92. Murray MP and Rasmussen MC (2003) Non-native blister rust disease on whitebark pine at Crater Lake National Park. Northwest Science 77: 87-91.
93. Nakawatase JM and Peterson DL (2006) Spatial variability in forest growth - climate relationships in the Olympic Mountains, Washington. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36: 77-91.
94. National Park Service (NPS) (2007) Research permits. Available at: http://www.nps.gov/grba/parkmgmt/research-permits.htm.
95. National Park Service (NPS) (2008a) Great Sand Dunes National Preserve code of regulation Title 36, Chapter 1. Available at: http://www.nps.gov/grsa/parkmgmt/index.htm.
96. National Park Service (NPS) (2008b) Mountains. Available at: http://www.nps.gov/olym/naturescience/mountains.htm.
97. National Park Service (NPS) (2009) Yellowstone Resources and Issues. Mammoth, WY: NPS.
98. National Park Service (NPS) (2010) Crater Lake - like no place else on earth. Available at: http://www.nps.gov/crla/index.htm.
99. Noble IR (1980) Interactions between tussock grass (Poa spp.) and Eucalyptus pauciflora seedlings near treeline in south-eastern Australia. Oecologia 45: 350-353.
100. Parker AJ (1991) Forest environment relationships in Lassen-Volcanic-National-Park, California, USA. Journal of Biogeography 18: 543-552.
101. Parker AJ (1993) Structural variation and dynamics of lodgepole pine forests in Lassen-Volcanic-National-Park, California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 83: 613-629.
102. Patten RS and Knight DH (1994) Snow avalanches and vegetation pattern in Cascade Canyon, Grand Teton National Park, Wyoming, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 26: 35-41.
103. Peet RK (1978) Latitudinal variation in Southern Rocky Mountain forests. Journal of Biogeography 5: 275-289.
104. Piussi P. (2005) Woodland recolonisation and postagricultural development in Italy. In: Broll G and Keplin B (eds) Mountain Ecosystems: Studies in Treeline Ecology. New York: Springer, 237-251.
105. Ranne BM, Baker WL, Andrews T., and Ryan MG (1997) Natural variability of vegetation, soils, and physiography in the bristlecone pine forests of the Rocky Mountains. Great Basin Naturalist 57: 21-37.
106. Resler LM (2006) Geomorphic controls of spatial pattern and process at alpine treeline. Professional Geographer 58: 124-138.
107. Resler LM, Butler, DR and Malanson GP (2005) Topographic shelter and conifer establishment and mortality in an alpine environment, Glacier National Park, Montana. Physical Geography 26: 112-125.
108. Rochefort RM and Peterson DL (1996) Temporal and spatial distribution of trees in subalpine meadows of Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 28: 52-59.
109. Romme WH and Turner MG (1991) Implications of global climate change for biogeographic patterns in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Conservation Biology 5: 373-386.
110. Roush W., Munroe JS, and Fagre DB (2007) Development of a spatial analysis method using ground-based repeat photography to detect changes in the alpine treeline ecotone, Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 39: 297-308.
111. Rowe RC (1974) Geology of our Western National Parks and Monuments. Portland, OR: Binford and Mort.
112. Schickhoff U. (2005) The upper timberline in the Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum: A review of geographical and ecological aspects. In: Broll G and Keplin B (eds) Mountain Ecosystems: Studies in Treeline Ecology. New York: Springer, 275-354.
113. Schrag AM, Bunn AG, and Graumlich LJ (2008) Influence of bioclimatic variables on treeline conifer distribution in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: Implications for species of conservation concern. Journal of Biogeography 35: 698-710.
114. Scott D., Malcolm JR, and Lemieux C. (2002) Climate change and modelled biome representation in Canada's national park system: Implications for system planning and park mandates. Global Ecology and Biogeography 11: 475-84.
115. Sellars RW (1997) Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
116. Shankman D. (1984) Tree regeneration following fire as evidence of timberline stability in the Colorado Front Range. Arctic and Alpine Research 16: 413-417.
117. Shi P., Körner C., and Hoch G. (2008) A test of the growth-limitation theory for alpine tree line formation in evergreen and deciduous taxa of the eastern Himalayas. Functional Ecology 22: 213-220.
118. Stueve KM, Cerney DL, Rochefort RM, and Kurth LL (2009) Post-fire tree establishment patterns at the alpine treeline ecotone: Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA. Journal of Vegetation Science 20: 107-120.
119. Suffling R. and Scott D. (2002) Assessment of climate change effects on Canada's national park system. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 74: 117-139.
120. Sveinbjörnsson B. (2000) North American and European treelines: External forces and internal processes controlling position. Ambio 29: 388-395.
121. Taylor AH (1990a) Tree Invasion in Meadows of Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. Professional Geographer 42: 457-470.
122. Taylor AH (1990b) Habitat segregation and regeneration of red fir and mountain hemlock in ecotonal forests of Lassen Volcanic National Park, California. Physical Geography 8: 35-49.
123. Taylor AH (1995) Forest expansion and climate-change in the mountain hemlock (Tsuga-Mertensiana) zone, Lassen-Volcanic-National-Park, California, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 27: 207-216.
124. Taylor AH (2000) Fire regimes and forest changes in mid and upper montane forests of the southern Cascades, Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, USA. Journal of Biogeography 27: 87-104.
125. Vale TR (1987) Vegetation change and park purposes in the high elevations of Yosemite National Park, California. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77: 1-18.
126. Vale TR and Vale GR (1994) Time and the Tuolumne Landscape: Continuity and Change in the Yosemite High Country. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press.
127. Vankat JL and Major J. (1978) Vegetation changes in Sequoia National Park, California. Journal of Biogeography 5: 377-402.
128. Villalba R., Boninsegna JA, Veblen TT, Schmelter A., and Rubulis S. (1997) Recent trends in tree-ring records from high elevation sites in the Andes of northern Patagonia. Climatic Change 36: 425-454.
129. Walsh SJ, Butler DR, Allen TR, and Malanson GP (1994) Influence of snow patterns and snow avalanches on the alpine treeline ecotone. Journal of Vegetation Science 5: 657-672.
130. Walsh SJ, Weiss DJ, Butler DR, and Malanson GP (2004) An assessment of snow avalanche paths and forest dynamics using Ikonos satellite data. Geocarto International 19: 85-93.
131. Wang T., Zhang QB, and Ma K. (2006) Treeline dynamics in relation to climatic variability in the central Tianshan Mountains, northwest China. Global Ecology and Biogeography 15: 406-415.
132. Wearne LJ and Morgan JW (2001) Recent forest encroachment into subalpine grasslands near Mount Hotham, Victoria, Australia. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33: 369-377.
133. Western Mountain Initiative (WMI) (2008) What is WMI? Available at: http://www.cfr.washington.edu/research.fme/wmi/about.htm.
134. White JD, Running SW, Thornton PE, Keane RE, Ryan KC, Fagre DBet al.(1998) Assessing simulated ecosystem processes for climate variability research at Glacier National Park, USA. Ecological Applications 8: 805-823.
135. Woodward A., Schreiner EG, and Silsbee DG (1995) Climate, geography, and tree establishment in subalpine meadows of the Olympic Mountains, Washington, USA. Arctic and Alpine Research 27: 217-225.
136. Zaslowsky D. (1994) These American Lands: Parks, Wilderness, and the Public Lands. Washington, DC: Island Press.
137. Zolbrod AN and Peterson DL (1999) Response of high-elevation forests in the Olympic Mountains to climatic change. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29: 1966-1978.