Acute pancreatitis

Annals of Clinical Biochemistry

Volumn 48, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 23-37

  Harper, Simon J F ^a   Cheslyn Curtis, Sarah ^a  

^a BEDFORD HOSPITAL NHS TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; AMYLASE; AZATHIOPRINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CARBOXYPEPTIDASE B ACTIVATION PEPTIDE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ELASTASE; FUROSEMIDE; GELATINASE B; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; MESALAZINE; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; OPIATE DERIVATIVE; PHOSPHOLIPASE A2; POLY C AVID RIBONUCLEASE; PROCALCITONIN; RIBONUCLEASE; SERUM AMYLOID A; STEROID; TRANSFERRIN; TRIACYLGLYCEROL LIPASE; TRYPSINOGEN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACUTE PANCREATITIS; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE SEVERITY; GALLSTONE; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; INCIDENCE; METABOLIC DISORDER; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OBESITY; PANCREAS DISEASE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCORING SYSTEM; TREATMENT INDICATION;

ACUTE DISEASE; ALCOHOL DRINKING; AMYLASES; AUTOLYSIS; GALLSTONES; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; HYPERCALCEMIA; HYPERLIPIDEMIAS; LIPASE; OBESITY; PANCREATITIS; PROGNOSIS; TRYPSIN; TRYPSINOGEN;

EID: 79551488238     PISSN: 00045632     EISSN: 00045632     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1258/acb.2010.010196     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. Yadav D, Lowenfels AB. Trends in the epidemiology of the first attack of acute pancreatitis: a systematic review. Pancreas 2006;33:323-30
2. Lund H, Tonnesen H, Tonnesen MH, Olsen O. Long-term recurrence and death rates after acute pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2006;41:234-8
3. Bradley EL III. A clinically based classification system for acute pancreatitis. Summary of the International Symposium on Acute Pancreatitis, Atlanta, Ga, September 11 through 13, 1992. Arch Surg 1993;128:586-90
4. McKay CJ, Evans S, Sinclair M, Carter CR, Imrie CW. High early mortality rate from acute pancreatitis in Scotland, 1984-1995. Br J Surg 1999;86:1302-5
5. Renner IG, Savage WT III, Pantoja JL, Renner VJ. Death due to acute pancreatitis. A retrospective analysis of 405 autopsy cases. Dig Dis Sci 1985;30:1005-18
6. Kong L, Santiago N, Han TQ, Zhang SD. Clinical characteristics and prognostic factors of severe acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2004;10:3336-8 (Pubitemid 39585477)
7. Johnson CD, Abu-Hilal M. Persistent organ failure during the first week as a marker of fatal outcome in acute pancreatitis. Gut 2004;53:1340-4
8. Pastor CM, Matthay MA, Frossard JL. Pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury: new insights. Chest 2003;124:2341-51
9. Browne GW, Pitchumoni CS. Pathophysiology of pulmonary complications of acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:7087-96
10. Balthazar EJ, Ranson JH, Naidich DP, Megibow AJ, Caccavale R, Cooper MM. Acute pancreatitis: prognostic value of CT. Radiology 1985;156:767-72
11. Blum T, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB, Lankisch PG. Fatal outcome in acute pancreatitis: its occurrence and early prediction. Pancreatology 2001;1:237-41
12. Pandol SJ, Saluja AK, Imrie CW, Banks PA. Acute pancreatitis: bench to the bedside. Gastroenterology 2007;132:1127-51
13. Al Mofleh IA. Severe acute pancreatitis: pathogenetic aspects and prognostic factors. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:675-84
14. Dervenis C. Assessments of severity and management of acute pancreatitis based on the Santorini Consensus Conference report. JOP 2000;1:178-82 (Pubitemid 38963887)
15. Cicalese L, Sahai A, Sileri P, et al. Acute pancreatitis and bacterial translocation. Dig Dis Sci 2001;46:1127-32
16. Frossard JL, Steer ML, Pastor CM. Acute pancreatitis. Lancet 2008;371:143-52
17. van Acker GJ, Perides G, Steer ML. Co-localization hypothesis: a mechanism for the intrapancreatic activation of digestive enzymes during the early phases of acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:1985-90
18. Hirota M, Ohmuraya M, Baba H. The role of trypsin, trypsin inhibitor, and trypsin receptor in the onset and aggravation of pancreatitis. J Gastroenterol 2006;41:832-6 (Pubitemid 44594223)
19. Criddle DN, McLaughlin E, Murphy JA, Petersen OH, Sutton R. The pancreas misled: signals to pancreatitis. Pancreatology 2007;7:436-46
20. Lundberg AH, Eubanks JW III, Henry J, et al. Trypsin stimulates production of cytokines from peritoneal macrophages in vitro and in vivo. Pancreas 2000;21:41-51 (Pubitemid 30421933)
21. Vonlaufen A, Apte MV, Imhof BA, Frossard JL. The role of inflammatory and parenchymal cells in acute pancreatitis. J Pathol 2007;213:239-48
22. Elfar M, Gaber LW, Sabek O, Fischer CP, Gaber AO. The inflammatory cascade in acute pancreatitis: relevance to clinical disease. Surg Clin North Am 2007;87:1325-40, vii
23. Pooran N, Indaram A, Singh P, Bank S. Cytokines (IL-6, IL-8, TNF): early and reliable predictors of severe acute pancreatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;37:263-6 (Pubitemid 37010923)
24. Yuan BS, Zhu RM, Braddock M, Zhang XH, Shi W, Zheng MH. Interleukin-18: a pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays an important role in acute pancreatitis. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007;11:1261-71 (Pubitemid 47604068)
25. Malleo G, Mazzon E, Siriwardena AK, Cuzzocrea S. Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in acute pancreatitis: from biological basis to clinical evidence. Shock 2007;28:130-40 (Pubitemid 47220822)
26. Liu XH, Nakano I, Ito T, et al. Role of endothelin in the development of hemorrhagic pancreatitis in rats. J Gastroenterol 1995;30:275-7
27. Aufenanger J, Samman M, Quintel M, Fassbender K, Zimmer W, Bertsch T. Pancreatic phospholipase A2 activity in acute pancreatitis: a prognostic marker for early identification of patients at risk. Clin Chem Lab Med 2002;40:293-7 (Pubitemid 34428859)
28. Cuthbertson CM, Christophi C. Disturbances of the microcirculation in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2006;93:518-30
29. Rakonczay Z Jr, Hegyi P, Takacs T, McCarroll J, Saluja AK. The role of NF-kappaB activation in the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis. Gut 2008;57:259-67 (Pubitemid 351158056)
30. Folch-Puy E. Importance of the liver in systemic complications associated with acute pancreatitis: the role of Kupffer cells. J Pathol 2007;211:383-8
31. Lundberg AH, Granger N, Russell J, et al. Temporal correlation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha release, upregulation of pulmonary ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, neutrophil sequestration, and lung injury in diet-induced pancreatitis. J Gastrointest Surg 2000;4:248-57
32. Murr MM, Yang J, Fier A, Kaylor P, Mastorides S, Norman JG. Pancreatic elastase induces liver injury by activating cytokine production within Kupffer cells via nuclear factor-Kappa B. J Gastrointest Surg 2002;6:474-80
33. Sun W, Watanabe Y, Wang ZQ. Expression and significance of ICAM-1 and its counter receptors LFA-1 and Mac-1 in experimental acute pancreatitis of rats. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:5005-9
34. Keck T, Balcom JHT, Fernandez-del Castillo C, Antoniu BA, Warshaw AL. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 promotes neutrophil migration and alveolar capillary leakage in pancreatitis-associated lung injury in the rat. Gastroenterology 2002;122:188-201 (Pubitemid 34049207)
35. Rahman SH, Ibrahim K, Larvin M, Kingsnorth A, McMahon MJ. Association of antioxidant enzyme gene polymorphisms and glutathione status with severe acute pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2004;126:1312-22 (Pubitemid 38552796)
36. Dib M, Zhao X, Wang XD, Andersson R. Role of mast cells in the development of pancreatitis-induced multiple organ dysfunction. Br J Surg 2002;89:172-8 (Pubitemid 34124238)
37. Benifla M, Weizman Z. Acute pancreatitis in childhood: analysis of literature data. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;37:169-72
38. Spanier BW, Dijkgraaf MG, Bruno MJ. Epidemiology, aetiology and outcome of acute and chronic pancreatitis: an update. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2008;22:45-63
39. Martinez J, Sanchez-Paya J, Palazon JM, Suazo-Barahona J, Robles-Diaz G, Perez-Mateo M. Is obesity a risk factor in acute pancreatitis? A meta-analysis. Pancreatology 2004;4:42-8
40. Hopper KD, Landis JR, Meilstrup JW, McCauslin MA, Sechtin AG. The prevalence of asymptomatic gallstones in the general population. Invest Radiol 1991;26:939-45
41. Armstrong CP, Taylor TV, Jeacock J, Lucas S. The biliary tract in patients with acute gallstone pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1985;72:551-5 (Pubitemid 15065012)
42. Diehl AK, Holleman DR Jr, Chapman JB, Schwesinger WH, Kurtin WE. Gallstone size and risk of pancreatitis. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:1674-8
43. Lightner AM, Kirkwood KS. Pathophysiology of gallstone pancreatitis. Front Biosci 2001;6:E66-76
44. Dholakia K, Pitchumoni CS, Agarwal N. How often are liver function tests normal in acute biliary pancreatitis? J Clin Gastroenterol 2004;38:81-3
45. Tenner S, Dubner H, Steinberg W. Predicting gallstone pancreatitis with laboratory parameters: a meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 1994;89:1863-6 (Pubitemid 24320559)
46. Hiatt JR, Calabria RP, Passaro E Jr, Wilson SE. The amylase profile: a discriminant in biliary and pancreatic disease. Am J Surg 1987;154:490-2
47. Rau B, Steinbach G, Baumgart K, Gansauge F, Grunert A, Beger HG. Serum amyloid Aversus C-reactive protein in acute pancreatitis: clinical value of an alternative acute-phase reactant. Crit Care Med 2000;28:736-42
48. Pezzilli R, Billi P, Barakat B, Miglio F. Lipase-amylase ratio does not determine the etiology of acute pancreatitis. Another myth bites the dust. J Clin Gastroenterol 1998;26:34-8 (Pubitemid 28076820)
49. Stimac D, Lenac T, Marusic Z. A scoring system for early differentiation of the etiology of acute pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998;33:209-11
50. Steinberg W, Tenner S. Acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1198-210
51. Sarles H. Alcoholism and pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1971;6:193-8
52. Haber PS, Wilson JS, Apte MV, Korsten MA, Pirola RC. Chronic ethanol consumption increases the fragility of rat pancreatic zymogen granules. Gut 1994;35:1474-8
53. Gorelick FS. Alcohol and zymogen activation in the pancreatic acinar cell. Pancreas 2003;27:305-10
54. Wilson JS, Apte MV. Role of alcohol metabolism in alcoholic pancreatitis. Pancreas 2003;27:311-15
55. Werner J, Saghir M, Warshaw AL, et al. Alcoholic pancreatitis in rats: injury from nonoxidative metabolites of ethanol. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;283:G65-73
56. Gukovskaya AS, Mouria M, Gukovsky I, et al. Ethanol metabolism and transcription factor activation in pancreatic acinar cells in rats. Gastroenterology 2002;122:106-18 (Pubitemid 34049200)
57. Criddle DN, Murphy J, Fistetto G, et al. Fatty acid ethyl esters cause pancreatic calcium toxicity via inositol trisphosphate receptors and loss of ATP synthesis. Gastroenterology 2006;130:781-93 (Pubitemid 43374528)
58. Miyasaka K, Ohta M, Takano S, et al. Carboxylester lipase gene polymorphism as a risk of alcohol-induced pancreatitis. Pancreas 2005;30:e87-91
59. Toskes PP. Hyperlipidemic pancreatitis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 1990;19:783-91
60. Mukherjee R, Criddle DN, Gukvoskaya A, Pandol S, Petersen OH, Sutton R. Mitochondrial injury in pancreatitis. Cell Calcium 2008;44:14-23
61. Fortson MR, Freedman SN, Webster PD III. Clinical assessment of hyperlipidemic pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1995;90:2134-9
62. Nair S, Yadav D, Pitchumoni CS. Association of diabetic ketoacidosis and acute pancreatitis: observations in 100 consecutive episodes of DKA. Am J Gastroenterol 2000;95:2795-800
63. Yadav D, Pitchumoni CS. Issues in hyperlipidemic pancreatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2003;36:54-62
64. Cameron JL, Capuzzi DM, Zuidema GD, Margolis S. Acute pancreatitis with hyperlipemia: the incidence of lipid abnormalities in acute pancreatitis. Ann Surg 1973;177:483-9
65. Petersen OH. Ca2+ signalling and Ca2+-activated ion channels in exocrine acinar cells. Cell Calcium 2005;38:171-200
66. Petersen OH. Localization and regulation of Ca2+ entry and exit pathways in exocrine gland cells. Cell Calcium 2003;33:337-44
67. Petersen OH. Ca2+-induced pancreatic cell death: roles of the endoplasmic reticulum, zymogen granules, lysosomes and endosomes. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;23(Suppl. 1):S31-6
68. Petersen OH, Sutton R. Ca2+ signalling and pancreatitis: effects of alcohol, bile and coffee. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2006;27:113-20 (Pubitemid 43184033)
69. Kim JY, Kim KH, Lee JA, et al. Transporter-mediated bile acid uptake causes Ca2+-dependent cell death in rat pancreatic acinar cells. Gastroenterology 2002;122:1941-53
70. Odinokova IV, Sung KF, Mareninova OA, Hermann K, Gukovsky I, Gukovskaya AS. Mitochondrial mechanisms of death responses in pancreatitis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;23(Suppl. 1):S25-30
71. Halestrap A. Biochemistry: a pore way to die. Nature 2005;434:578-9
72. Mareninova OA, Sung KF, Hong P, et al. Cell death in pancreatitis: caspases protect from necrotizing pancreatitis. J Biol Chem 2006;281:3370-81 (Pubitemid 43845951)
73. Takeyama Y. Significance of apoptotic cell death in systemic complications with severe acute pancreatitis. J Gastroenterol 2005;40:1-10
74. Trivedi CD, Pitchumoni CS. Drug-induced pancreatitis: an update. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005;39:709-16
75. Balani AR, Grendell JH. Drug-induced pancreatitis: incidence, management and prevention. Drug Saf 2008;31:823-37
76. Cheng CL, Sherman S, Watkins JL, et al. Risk factors for post-ERCP pancreatitis: a prospective multicenter study. Am J Gastroenterol 2006;101:139-47
77. UK Working Party on Acute Pancreatitis. UK guidelines for the management of acute pancreatitis. Gut 2005;54(Suppl. 3):ii1-9
78. Elta GH. Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction and bile duct microlithiasis in acute idiopathic pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:1023-6
79. Grau F, Almela P, Aparisi L, et al. Usefulness of alanine and aspartate aminotransferases in the diagnosis of microlithiasis in idiopathic acute pancreatitis. Int J Pancreatol 1999;25:107-11 (Pubitemid 29246918)
80. McLoughlin MT, Mitchell RM. Sphincter of Oddi dysfunction and pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2007;13:6333-43
81. Sugawa C, Walt AJ, Nunez DC, Masuyama H. Pancreas divisum: is it a normal anatomic variant? Am J Surg 1987;153:62-7
82. Whitcomb DC, Gorry MC, Preston RA, et al. Hereditary pancreatitis is caused by a mutation in the cationic trypsinogen gene. Nat Genet 1996;14:141-5
83. Schneider A. Serine protease inhibitor Kazal type 1 mutations and pancreatitis. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2004;33:789-806
84. Whitcomb DC. Hereditary pancreatitis: new insights into acute and chronic pancreatitis. Gut 1999;45:317-22
85. Gumaste VV, Roditis N, Mehta D, Dave PB. Serum lipase levels in nonpancreatic abdominal pain versus acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1993;88:2051-5
86. Clavien PA, Robert J, Meyer P, et al. Acute pancreatitis and normoamylasemia. Not an uncommon combination. Ann Surg 1989;210:614-20
87. Treacy J, Williams A, Bais R, et al. Evaluation of amylase and lipase in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. ANZ J Surg 2001;71:577-82
88. Spechler SJ, Dalton JW, Robbins AH, et al. Prevalence of normal serum amylase levels in patients with acute alcoholic pancreatitis. Dig Dis Sci 1983;28:865-9
89. Fallat RW, Vester JW, Glueck CJ. Suppression of amylase activity by hypertriglyceridemia. JAMA 1973;225:1331-4
90. Wickus GG, Dukerschein RO, Pierce JR, Davis KD. Interference in a chromogenic alpha-amylase assay caused by dye-labeled oligosaccharide-induced precipitation of lipoprotein. Clin Chem 1982;28:2131-4
91. Warshaw AL, Bellini CA, Lesser PB. Inhibition of serum and urine amylase activity in pancreatitis with hyperlipemia. Ann Surg 1975;182:72-5
92. Lesser PB, Warshaw AL. Diagnosis of pancreatitis masked by hyperlipemia. Ann Intern Med 1975;82:795-8
93. Foo AY, Bais R. Amylase measurement with 2-chloro-4-nitrophenyl maltotrioside as substrate. Clin Chim Acta 1998;272:137-47 (Pubitemid 28279779)
94. McCroskey R, Chang T, David H, Winn E. p-Nitrophenylglycosides as substrates for measurement of amylase in serum and urine. Clin Chem 1982;28:1787-91 (Pubitemid 12039735)
95. Lorentz K. Routine alpha-amylase assay using protected 4-nitrophenyl-1, 4-alpha-D-maltoheptaoside and a novel alpha-glucosidase. Clin Chem 2000;46:644-9 (Pubitemid 30318419)
96. Yadav D, Agarwal N, Pitchumoni CS. A critical evaluation of laboratory tests in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2002;97:1309-18 (Pubitemid 34664770)
97. Boyle CE, Fraser CG. Macroamylasaemia: how common is it? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;291:1389
98. Warshaw AL, Fuller AF Jr. Specificity of increased renal clearance of amylase in diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 1975;292:325-8
99. Smith RC, Southwell-Keely J, Chesher D. Should serum pancreatic lipase replace serum amylase as a biomarker of acute pancreatitis? ANZ J Surg 2005;75:399-404
100. Thomson HJ, Obekpa PO, Smith AN, Brydon WG. Diagnosis of acute pancreatitis: a proposed sequence of biochemical investigations. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22:719-24
101. Hemingway DM, Johnson I, Tuffnell DJ, Croton RS. The value of immunoreactive lipase in acute pancreatitis. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1988;70:195-6
102. Steinberg WM, Goldstein SS, Davis ND, Shamma'a J, Anderson K. Diagnostic assays in acute pancreatitis. A study of sensitivity and specificity. Ann Intern Med 1985;102:576-80
103. Tietz NW, Shuey DF. Lipase in serum - the elusive enzyme: an overview. Clin Chem 1993;39:746-56
104. Apple F, Benson P, Preese L, Eastep S, Bilodeau L, Heiler G. Lipase and pancreatic amylase activities in tissues and in patients with hyperamylasemia. Am J Clin Pathol 1991;96:610-14
105. Chase CW, Barker DE, Russell WL, Burns RP. Serum amylase and lipase in the evaluation of acute abdominal pain. Am Surg 1996;62:1028-33
106. Tietz NW. Support of the diagnosis of pancreatitis by enzyme tests - old problems, new techniques. Clin Chim Acta 1997;257:85-98
107. Keim V, Teich N, Fiedler F, Hartig W, Thiele G, Mossner J. A comparison of lipase and amylase in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis in patients with abdominal pain. Pancreas 1998;16:45-9 (Pubitemid 28034429)
108. Pezzilli R, Billi P, Barakat B, Fiocchi M, Miglio F. Clinical value of serum pancreatic enzymes in acute alcohol intoxication and acute alcoholic pancreatitis. Ital J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1997;29:174-8
109. Petersson U, Appelros S, Borgstrom A. Different patterns in immunoreactive anionic and cationic trypsinogen in urine and serum in human acute pancreatitis. Int J Pancreatol 1999;25:165-70 (Pubitemid 29379958)
110. Kemppainen EA, Hedstrom JI, Puolakkainen PA, et al. Rapid measurement of urinary trypsinogen-2 as a screening test for acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1788-93
111. Kylanpaa-Back ML, Kemppainen E, Puolakkainen P, et al. Comparison of urine trypsinogen-2 test strip with serum lipase in the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. Hepatogastroenterology 2002;49:1130-4 (Pubitemid 34809804)
112. Yang RW, Shao ZX, Chen YY, Yin Z, Wang WJ. Lipase and pancreatic amylase activities in diagnosis of acute pancreatitis in patients with hyperamylasemia. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int 2005;4:600-3 (Pubitemid 41723821)
113. Wilson C, Heath DI, Imrie CW. Prediction of outcome in acute pancreatitis: a comparative study of APACHE II, clinical assessment and multiple factor scoring systems. Br J Surg 1990;77:1260-4
114. Lankisch PG, Burchard-Reckert S, Lehnick D. Underestimation of acute pancreatitis: patients with only a small increase in amylase/lipase levels can also have or develop severe acute pancreatitis. Gut 1999;44:542-4
115. Ranson JH. Acute pancreatitis. Curr Probl Surg 1979;16:1-84
116. Forsmark CE, Baillie J. AGA Institute technical review on acute pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2007;132:2022-44
117. Blamey SL, Imrie CW, O'Neill J, Gilmour WH, Carter DC. Prognostic factors in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1984;25:1340-6
118. Larvin M, McMahon MJ. APACHE-II score for assessment and monitoring of acute pancreatitis. Lancet 1989;2:201-5
119. Singh VK, Wu BU, Bollen TL, et al. A prospective evaluation of the bedside index for severity in acute pancreatitis score in assessing mortality and intermediate markers of severity in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104:966-71
120. Papachristou GI, Muddana V, Yadav D, et al. Comparison of BISAP, Ranson's, APACHE-II, and CTSI scores in predicting organ failure, complications, and mortality in acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;105:435-41
121. Ueda T, Takeyama Y, Yasuda T, et al. Simple scoring system for the prediction of the prognosis of severe acute pancreatitis. Surgery 2007;141:51-8
122. Dervenis C, Johnson CD, Bassi C, et al. Diagnosis, objective assessment of severity, and management of acute pancreatitis. Santorini consensus conference. Int J Pancreatol 1999;25:195-210 (Pubitemid 29379961)
123. Al-Bahrani AZ, Ammori BJ. Clinical laboratory assessment of acute pancreatitis. Clin Chim Acta 2005;362:26-48
124. Alfonso V, Gomez F, Lopez A, et al. [Value of C-reactive protein level in the detection of necrosis in acute pancreatitis]. Gastroenterol Hepatol 2003;26:288-93
125. Kylanpaa-Back ML, Takala A, Kemppainen E, Puolakkainen P, Haapiainen R, Repo H. Procalcitonin strip test in the early detection of severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2001;88:222-7
126. Mandi Y, Farkas G, Takacs T, Boda K, Lonovics J. Diagnostic relevance of procalcitonin, IL-6, and sICAM-1 in the prediction of infected necrosis in acute pancreatitis. Int J Pancreatol 2000;28:41-9
127. Rau B, Steinbach G, Gansauge F, Mayer JM, Grunert A, Beger HG. The potential role of procalcitonin and interleukin 8 in the prediction of infected necrosis in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1997;41:832-40 (Pubitemid 28023189)
128. Muller CA, Uhl W, Printzen G, et al. Role of procalcitonin and granulocyte colony stimulating factor in the early prediction of infected necrosis in severe acute pancreatitis. Gut 2000;46:233-8 (Pubitemid 30305850)
129. Mayer JM, Raraty M, Slavin J, et al. Serum amyloid A is a better early predictor of severity than C-reactive protein in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2002;89:163-71
130. Pezzilli R, Morselli-Labate AM, Barbieri AR, Plate L. Clinical usefulness of the serum carboxypeptidase B activation peptide in acute pancreatitis. JOP 2000;1:58-68
131. Pezzilli R, Billi P, Miniero R, et al. Serum interleukin-6, interleukin-8, and beta 2-microglobulin in early assessment of severity of acute pancreatitis. Comparison with serum C-reactive protein. Dig Dis Sci 1995;40:2341-8
132. Chen CC, Wang SS, Lee FY, Chang FY, Lee SD. Proinflammatory cytokines in early assessment of the prognosis of acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:213-18
133. Stoelben E, Nagel M, Ockert D, et al. [Clinical significance of cytokines Il-6, Il-8 and C-reactive protein in serum of patients with acute pancreatitis]. Chirurg 1996;67:1231-6
134. Heath DI, Cruickshank A, Gudgeon M, Jehanli A, Shenkin A, Imrie CW. Role of interleukin-6 in mediating the acute phase protein response and potential as an early means of severity assessment in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1993;34:41-5
135. Chen CC, Wang SS, Lu RH, Chang FY, Lee SD. Serum interleukin 10 and interleukin 11 in patients with acute pancreatitis. Gut 1999;45:895-9
136. Mentula P, Kylanpaa ML, Kemppainen E, et al. Early prediction of organ failure by combined markers in patients with acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2005;92:68-75
137. Mentula P, Kylanpaa ML, Kemppainen E, et al. Plasma anti-inflammatory cytokines and monocyte human leucocyte antigen-DR expression in patients with acute pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2004;39:178-87
138. Kaufmann P, Tilz GP, Lueger A, Demel U. Elevated plasma levels of soluble tumor necrosis factor receptor (sTNFRp60) reflect severity of acute pancreatitis. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:841-8
139. de Beaux AC, Ross JA, Maingay JP, Fearon KC, Carter DC. Proinflammatory cytokine release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 1996;83:1071-5
140. Papachristou GI, Sass DA, Avula H, et al. Is the monocyte chemotactic protein-1 -2518 G allele a risk factor for severe acute pancreatitis? Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005;3:475-81
141. Kaufmann P, Tilz GP, Smolle KH, Demel U, Krejs GJ. Increased plasma concentrations of circulating intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (cICAM-1) in patients with necrotizing pancreatitis. Immunobiology 1996;195:209-19 (Pubitemid 26275768)
142. Chen P, Yuan Y, Wang S, Zhan L, Xu J. Serum matrix metalloproteinase 9 as a marker for the assessment of severe acute pancreatitis. Tohoku J Exp Med 2006;208:261-6
143. Bird NC, Goodman AJ, Johnson AG. Serum phospholipase A2 activity in acute pancreatitis: an early guide to severity. Br J Surg 1989;76:731-2
144. Mayer J, Rau B, Grewe M, Schoenberg MH, Nevalainen TJ, Beger HG. Secretory phospholipase A2 in patients with infected pancreatic necroses in acute pancreatitis. Pancreas 1998;17:272-7
145. Dominguez-Munoz JE, Carballo F, Garcia MJ, et al. Clinical usefulness of polymorphonuclear elastase in predicting the severity of acute pancreatitis: results of a multicentre study. Br J Surg 1991;78:1230-4
146. Viedma JA, Perez-Mateo M, Agullo J, Dominguez JE, Carballo F. Inflammatory response in the early prediction of severity in human acute pancreatitis. Gut 1994;35:822-7
147. Gross V, Scholmerich J, Leser HG, et al. Granulocyte elastase in assessment of severity of acute pancreatitis. Comparison with acute-phase proteins C-reactive protein, alpha 1-antitrypsin, and protease inhibitor alpha 2-macroglobulin. Dig Dis Sci 1990;35:97-105
148. Tenner S, Sica G, Hughes M, et al. Relationship of necrosis to organ failure in severe acute pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1997;113:899-903
149. Johnson CD, Lempinen M, Imrie CW, et al. Urinary trypsinogen activation peptide as a marker of severe acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2004;91:1027-33
150. Neoptolemos JP, Kemppainen EA, Mayer JM, et al. Early prediction of severity in acute pancreatitis by urinary trypsinogen activation peptide: a multicentre study. Lancet 2000;355:1955-60
151. Lempinen M, Stenman UH, Finne P, Puolakkainen P, Haapiainen R, Kemppainen E. Trypsinogen-2 and trypsinogen activation peptide (TAP) in urine of patients with acute pancreatitis. J Surg Res 2003;111:267-73
152. Lempinen M, Kylanpaa-Back ML, Stenman UH, et al. Predicting the severity of acute pancreatitis by rapid measurement of trypsinogen-2 in urine. Clin Chem 2001;47:2103-7
153. Kemppainen E, Hietaranta A, Puolakkainen P, Hedstrom J, Haapiainen R, Stenman UH. Time course profile of serum trypsinogen-2 and trypsin-2-alpha1- antitrypsin in patients with acute pancreatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2000;35:1216-20
154. Saez J, Martinez J, Trigo C, et al. A comparative study of the activation peptide of carboxypeptidase B and trypsinogen as early predictors of the severity of acute pancreatitis. Pancreas 2004;29:e9-14
155. Appelros S, Thim L, Borgstrom A. Activation peptide of carboxypeptidase B in serum and urine in acute pancreatitis. Gut 1998;42:97-102
156. Gornik O, Gornik I, Gasparovic V, Lauc G. Change in transferrin sialylation is a potential prognostic marker for severity of acute pancreatitis. Clin Biochem 2008;41:504-10
157. Kusnierz-Cabala B, Naskalski JW, Kedra B, Panek J. Comparison of sensitivity and specificity of serum poly-C avid ribonuclease activity and C-reactive protein concentration in detection of mild and severe acute pancreatitis. Clin Chem Lab Med 2004;42:549-55
158. Naskalski JW, Kusnierz-Cabala B, Panek J, Kedra B. Poly-C specific ribonuclease activity correlates with increased concentrations of IL-6, IL-8 and sTNFR55/sTNFR75 in plasma of patients with acute pancreatitis. J Physiol Pharmacol 2003;54:439-48
159. Balthazar EJ, Robinson DL, Megibow AJ, Ranson JH. Acute pancreatitis: value of CT in establishing prognosis. Radiology 1990;174:331-6
160. Vriens PW, van de Linde P, Slotema ET, Warmerdam PE, Breslau PJ. Computed tomography severity index is an early prognostic tool for acute pancreatitis. J Am Coll Surg 2005;201:497-502
161. Athyros VG, Giouleme OI, Nikolaidis NL, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with acute hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2002;34:472-5
162. Tsuang W, Navaneethan U, Ruiz L, Palascak JB, Gelrud A. Hypertriglyceridemic pancreatitis: presentation and management. Am J Gastroenterol 2009;104:984-91
163. Ewald N, Hardt PD, Kloer HU. Severe hypertriglyceridemia and pancreatitis: presentation and management. Curr Opin Lipidol 2009;20:497-504
164. Meier RF, Beglinger C. Nutrition in pancreatic diseases. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2006;20:507-29
165. Moore FA, Feliciano DV, Andrassy RJ, et al. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications. The results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg 1992;216:172-83
166. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Meta-analysis of parenteral nutrition versus enteral nutrition in patients with acute pancreatitis. BMJ 2004;328:1407
167. Eatock FC, Chong P, Menezes N, et al. A randomized study of early nasogastric versus nasojejunal feeding in severe acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2005;100:432-9
168. Ioannidis O, Lavrentieva A, Botsios D. Nutrition support in acute pancreatitis. JOP 2008;9:375-90
169. Werner J, Feuerbach S, Uhl W, Buchler MW. Management of acute pancreatitis: from surgery to interventional intensive care. Gut 2005;54:426-36
170. Bradley EL III, Howard TJ, van Sonnenberg E, Fotoohi M. Intervention in necrotizing pancreatitis: an evidence-based review of surgical and percutaneous alternatives. J Gastrointest Surg 2008;12:634-9
171. Mazaki T, Ishii Y, Takayama T. Meta-analysis of prophylactic antibiotic use in acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Br J Surg 2006;93:674-84
172. Singhal D, Kakodkar R, Sud R, Chaudhary A. Issues in management of pancreatic pseudocysts. JOP 2006;7:502-7
173. Baron TH. Treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts, pancreatic necrosis, and pancreatic duct leaks. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am 2007;17:559-79, vii
174. Kirby JM, Vora P, Midia M, Rawlinson J. Vascular complications of pancreatitis: imaging and intervention. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2008;31:957-70
175. Johnson CD, Kingsnorth AN, Imrie CW, et al. Double blind, randomised, placebo controlled study of a platelet activating factor antagonist, lexipafant, in the treatment and prevention of organ failure in predicted severe acute pancreatitis. Gut 2001;48:62-9
176. Seta T, Noguchi Y, Shimada T, Shikata S, Fukui T. Treatment of acute pancreatitis with protease inhibitors: a meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2004;16:1287-93
177. Bang UC, Semb S, Nojgaard C, Bendtsen F. Pharmacological approach to acute pancreatitis. World J Gastroenterol 2008;14:2968-76