The origin of mountains - implications for the behaviour of Earth's lithosphere

Current Science

Volumn 99, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 1699-1718

  Lamb, Simon ^a   Watts, Anthony ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Lithosphere; Mountains; Plate tectonics; Tectonics

Indexed keywords

EID: 78650995141     PISSN: 00113891     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Airy, G. B., On the computation of the effect of attraction of mountain-masses, as disturbing the apparent astronomical latitude of stations of geodetic surveys. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 1855, 145, 101-104.
2. Pratt, J. H., On the deflection of the plumb-line in India, caused by the attraction of the Himalaya mountains and of the elevated regions beyond; and its modification by the compensating effect of the deficiency of matter below the mountain mass. Philos. Trans. R. Soc., 1859, 149, 745-796.
3. Beck, S., Zandt, G., Myers, S., Wallace, T., Silver, P. and Drake, L., Crustal thickness variations in the Central Andes. Geology, 1996, 24, 407-410.
4. Beck, S. and Zandt, G., The nature of orogenic crust in the central Andes. J. Geophys. Res., 2002, 107(B10), 2230.
5. Zhang, X., Sun, R. and Teng, J., Study on crustal, lithospheric and asthenospheric thickness beneath the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its adjacent areas. Chinese Sci. Bull., 2007, 52, 797-804.
6. Xiaosong, X., Rui, G., Qiusheng, L. and Zhanwu, L., Moho depth of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau revealed by seismic probing. J. Earth Sci., 2009, 20, 448-463.
7. Stern, T. A., Stratford, W. R. and Salmon, M. L., Subduction at a continental margin: kinematics and dynamics of the central North Island, New Zealand. Rev. Geophys., 2006, 44, RG4002.
8. Mooney, W., Laske, G. and Masters, T. G., CRUST 5.1: A global crustal model at 5° × 5°. J. Geophys. Res., 1998, 103, 727-747.
9. Christensen, N. I. and Mooney, W. D., Seismic velocity structure and composition of the continental crust: A global view. J. Geophys. Res., 1995, 100, 9761-9788.
10. Grad, M. and Tiira, T., ESC Working Group, The Moho depth map of the European Plate. Geophys. J. Int., 2009, 176, 279-292.
11. Hyndman, R. D., The consequences of Canadian Cordillera thermal regime in recent tectonics and elevation: a review. Can. J. Earth Sci., 2010, 47, 621-632.
12. McKenzie, D. and Priestley, K., The influence of lithospheric thickness variations on continental evolution. Lithos, 2008, 102, 1-11.
13. Hyndman, R., Currie, C. and Mazzotti, S., Subduction zone backarcs, mobile belts and orogenic heat. GSA Today, 2005, 15, 2.
14. Watts, A. B., Isostasy and Flexure of the Lithosphere, Cambridge Univ Press, 2001, p. 458.
15. Dewey, J. F., Shackleton, R. and Chengfa, C., The tectonic evolution of the Tibetan Plateau. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, 1988, A327, 379-413.
16. Searle, M. P. et al., Crustal structure, restoration and evolution of the Greater Himalaya in Nepal-South Tibet: implications for channel flow and ductile extrusion of the middle crust. J. Geol. Soc. London, 2006, 268, 355-378.
17. Hindle, D., Kley, J., Oncken, O. and Sobolev, S., Crustal balance and crustal flux from shortening estimates in the Central Andes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2006, 230, 113-124.
18. Stern, T. A., Okaya, D., Kleffmann, S., Scherwath, M., Henrys, S. and Davey, F., Geophysical exploration and dynamics of the Alpine Fault zone. In A Continental Plate Boundary, Tectonics at South Island, New Zealand (eds Okaya, D., Stern, T. and Davey, F.), American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph, 2007, 175, 207-233.
19. McCaffrey, R., Block kinematics of the Pacific-North America plate boundary in the southwestern United States from inversion of GPS, seismological, and geologic data. J. Geophys. Res., 2005, 110, B07401.
20. Sobolev, S., Babeyko, A., Koulakov, I. and Oncken, O., Mechanism of the Andean orogeny: insight from numerical modelling. In The Andes, Active Subduction Orogeny (eds Oncken, O. et al.), Frontiers in Earth Sciences, Springer, 2006, Chapter 25, pp. 513-535.
21. Tapponnier, P. and Molnar, P., Active faulting and cenozoic tectonics of China. J. Geophys. Res., 1977, 82, 2905-2930.
22. Armijo, R., Tapponnier, P., Mercier, J. and Tong-Lin, H., Quaternary extension in southern Tibet: Field observations and tectonic implications. J. Geophys. Res., 1986, 91, B14.
23. Houseman, G. and Engl and, P., Crustal thickening versus lateral expulsion in the Indian-Asian continental collision. J. Geophys. Res., 1993, 98, 12233-12249.
24. Lamb, S. and Hoke, L., Origin of the high plateau in the central Andes, Bolivia, South America. Tectonics, 1997, 16, 623-649.
25. Hoke, L. and Lamb, S., Cenozoic behind-arc volcanism in the Bolivian Andes, South America: implications for mantle melt generation and lithospheric structure. J. Geol. Soc. London, 2007, 164, 795-814.
26. Houseman, G. A., McKenzie, D. P. and Molner, P., Convective instability of a thickened boundary layer and its relevance for the thermal evolution of continental convergent belts. J. Geophys. Res., 1981, 86, 6115-6132.
27. Molnar, P., England, P. and Martinod, J., Mantle dynamics, uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the Indian monsoon. Rev. Geophys., 1993, 31, 357-396.
28. Dalmayrac, B. and Molnar, P., Parallel thrust and normal faulting in Peru and constraints on the state of stress. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1981, 55, 473-481.
29. Perez-Gussinye, M. and Watts, A. B., The long-term strength of Europe and its implications for plate-forming processes. Nature, 2005, 436, 381-384.
30. Jordan, T. A. and Watts, A. B., Gravity anomalies, flexure and the elastic thickness structure of the India-Eurasia collisional system. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2005, 236, 732-750.
31. Jackson, J. A., McKenzie, D., Priestley, K. and Emmerson, B., New views on the structure and rheology of the lithosphere. J. Geol. Soc. London, 2008, 165, 453-465.
32. McKenzie, D., Jackson, J. and Priestley, K., Thermal structure of oceanic and continental lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2005, 233, 337-349.
33. Hyndman, R. D., Currie, C. A., Mazzotti, S. and Frederiksen, A., Temperature control of continental lithosphere elastic thickness, Te vs Vs. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2009, 277, 539-548.
34. Watts, A. B., Lamb, S., Fairhead, J. and Dewey, J. F., Lithospheric flexure and bending of the central Andes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1995, 134, 9-21.
35. Stewart, J. and Watts, A. B., Gravity anomalies and spatial variations of flexural rigidity at mountain ranges. J. Geophys. Res., 1997, 102, 5327-5352.
36. Tassara, A., Interaction between the Nazca and South American plates and formation of the Altiplano-Puna plateau: review of a flexural analysis along the Andean margin (15°-34°S). Tectonophysics, 2005, 399, 39-57.
37. Myers, S. C., Beck, S., Zandt, G. and Wallace, T., Lithosphericscale structure across the Bolivian Andes from tomographic images of velocity and attenuation for P and S waves. J. Geophys. Res., 1998, 103, 21233-21252.
38. Jackson, J., Strength of the continental lithosphere: time to abandon the jelly sandwich? GSA Today, 2002, 12(9), 4-10.
39. Lamb, S. H., Is it all in the crust? Nature, 2002, 420, 130-131.
40. Monsalve, G., McGovern, P. and Sheehan, A., Mantle fault zones beneath the Himalayan collision: flexure of the continental lithosphere. Tectonophysics, 2009, 477, 66-76.
41. Wdowinski, S. and Bock, Y., The evolution of deformation and topography of high elevated plateaus, 1, model, numerical analysis, and general results. J. Geophys. Res., 1994, 99, 7103-7119.
42. Gubbels, T. L., Isacks, B. L. and Farrar, E., High-level surfaces, plateau uplift, and foreland development, Bolivian central Andes. Geology, 1993, 21, 695-698.
43. Allmendinger, R. W. and Gubbels, T., Pure and simple shear plateau uplift, Altiplano-Puna, Argentina and Bolivia. Tectonophysics, 1996, 259, 1-14.
44. Barke, R. and Lamb S., Late Cenozoic uplift of the Eastern Cordillera, Bolivian Andes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2006, 249, 350-367.
45. Nelson, K. D. et al., Partial molten middle crust beneath southern Tibet: synthesis of project INDEPTH results. Science, 1996, 274, 1684-1696.
46. Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R., Nguyen, M. and Medvedev, S., Crustal channel flows: 1. Numerical models with applications to the tectonics of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. J. Geophys. Res., 2004, 109, B06406.
47. Maggi, A., Jackson, J. A., McKenzie, D. and Priestley, K., Earthquakes focal depths, effective elastic thickness, and the strength of the continental lithosphere. Geophys. J. Int., 2000, 143, 629-661.
48. Maggi, A., Jackson, J. A., Priestley, K. and Baker, C., A reassessment of focal depth distributions in southern Iran, the Tien Shan and northern India: do earthquakes occur in the continental mantle? Geology, 2000, 28, 495-498.
49. Lamb, S. H., Behaviour of the brittle crust in wide zones of deformation. J. Geophys. Res., 1994, 99, 4457-4483.
50. Ranalli, G., Rheology of the Earth, Chapman & Hall, London, 1995, 2nd edn.
51. Burov, E. B. and Watts, A. B., The long-term strength of continental lithosphere: 'jelly sandwich' or 'crème brûlée'? GSA Today, 2006, 16(1), 4-10.
52. England, P. C. and McKenzie, D. P., A thin viscous sheet model for continental deformation. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 1982, 70, 295-321. (Correction to A thin viscous sheet model for continental deformation. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 1983, 73, 523-532.)
53. McKenzie, D. P. and Jackson, J. A., The relationship between strain rates, crustal thickening, paleomagnetism, finite strain and fault movements within a deforming zone. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 1983, 65, 182-202.
54. England, P. C. and Molnar, P., The field of crustal velocity in Asia calculated from Quaternary rates of slip on faults. Geophys. J. Int., 1997a, 130, 551-582.
55. Lamb, S. H., Active deformation in the Bolivian Andes, South America. J. Geophys. Res., 2000, 105, 25627-25653.
56. England, P. C. and Molnar, P., Active deformation of Asia: from kinematics to dynamics. Science, 1997b, 278, 647-649.
57. Thatcher, W., How the continents deform: the evidence from tectonic geodesy. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 2009, 17, 237-262.
58. Freymueller, J., Woodard, H., Cohen, S. C., Elliott, J., Larsen, C., Hreinsdottir, S. and Zweck, C., Active deformation processes in Alaska, based on 5 years of GPS measurements, active tectonics and seismic potential of Alaska. Geophys. Monogr. Ser., 2008, 79, 1-42.
59. Clark, M. C., Bush, J. W. M. and Royden, L. H., Dynamic topography produced by lower crustal flow against rheological strength heterogeneities bordering the Tibetan Plateau. Geophys. J. Int., 2005, 162, 575-590.
60. Beaumont, C., Jamieson, R. A., Nguyen, M. H. and Lee, B., Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature, 2001, 414, 738-742.
61. Sebrier, M., Mercier, J. L., Megard, F., Laubacher, G. and Carey-Gailhardis, E., Quaternary normal and reverse faulting and the state of stress in the Central Andes of South Peru. Tectonics, 1985, 4, 739-780.
62. England, P. C. and Houseman, G. A., Extension during continental convergence, with application to the Tibetan Plateau. J. Geophys. Res., 1989, 94, 17561-17579.
63. Spicer, R. et al., Constant elevation of southern Tibet over the past 15 million years. Nature, 2003, 421, 622-624.
64. Garzione, C., Surface uplift of Tibet and global cooling. Geology, 2008, 36, 1003-1004.
65. Ghosh, P., Garzione, C. N. and Eiler, J. M., Rapid uplift of the Altiplano revealed through 13C-18O bonds in paleosol carbonates. Science, 2006, 311, 511-515.
66. Garzione, C. N. et al., Rise of the Andes. Science, 2008, 320, 1304-1305.
67. Lamb, S., Shear stresses on megathrusts: Implications for mountain building behind subduction zones. J. Geophys. Res., 2006, 111, B07401.
68. Lamb, S. H. and Davis, P., Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes. Nature, 2003, 425, 792-797.
69. Schellart, W., Freeman, J., Stegman, D., Moresi, L. and May, D., Evolution and diversity of subduction zones controlled by slab width. Nature, 2007, 446, 308-311.
70. Ehlers, T. and Poulsen, C., Influence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 2009, 281, 238-248.
71. Raymo, M. E. and Ruddiman, W. F., Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate. Nature, 1992, 359, 117-122.
72. Willett, S. D., Orogeny and orography: the effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts. J. Geophys. Res., 1999, 104, 28957-28981.
73. England, P. and Thompson, A. B., Pressure-temperature-time paths of regional metamorphism - I. Heat transfer during the evolution of regions of thickened continental crust. J. Petrol., 1984, 25, 894-928.
74. Read, H. H. and Watson, J., Introduction to Geology, Earth History Part 1, Early Stages of Earth History, 2, Macmillan, London, 1975, p. 221.
75. Cande, S. and Stock, J., Pacific-Antarctic-Australia motion and the formation of the Macquarrie Plate. Geophys. J. Int., 2004, 157, 399-414.
76. Lamb, S. H., Vertical axis rotation in the Bolivian orocline, South America, 2. Kinematic and dynamical implications. J. Geophys. Res., 2001, 106, 26633-26653.