A new fundamental freedom beyond market integration: Union citizenship and its dynamics for shifting the economic paradigm of European integration

European Law Journal

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 1-34

  Wollenschläger, Ferdinand ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 78650692410     PISSN: 13515993     EISSN: 14680386     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0386.2010.00536.x     Document Type: Article

References (236)

1. This quotation echoes the title of an article by A. Lhoest, 'Le citoyen à la une de l'Europe', (1975) Revue Du Marché Commun Et De L'Union Européenne 431.
2. cf for an account of the rise of the idea of a 'Citizens' Europe' F. Wollenschläger, Grundfreiheit ohne Markt. Die Herausbildung der Unionsbürgerschaft im unionsrechtlichen Freizügigkeitsregime (Mohr Siebeck, 2007), at 91 et seq.
3. J.H.H. Weiler, 'Citizenship and Human Rights', in J.A. Winter et al (eds), Reforming the Treaty on European Union (Kluwer Law International, 1996), 57, at 68; see also J.H.H. Weiler, 'Les droits des citoyens européens' (1996) Revue Du Marché Unique Européen 35, at 36 et seq; T. Kostakopoulou, Citizenship, Identity and Immigration in the European Union (Manchester University Press, 2001), at 66: 'weak institution; a pale shadow of its national counterpart'; T. Kostakopoulou, 'Nested "Old" and "New" Citizenship in the European Union', (1999) 5 Columbia Journal of European Law 389, at 391
4. J.-D. Mouton, 'La citoyenneté de l'Union: passé, présent et avenir', in G. Ress and T. Stein (eds), Vorträge, Reden und Berichte aus dem Europa-Institut. Nr. 282 (Europa Institut, 1996) 3, at 12 and 18; H.U. Jessurun d'Oliveira, 'Union Citizenship: Pie in the Sky?', in A. Rosas and E. Antola (eds), A Citizens' Europe (Sage, 1995) 126, at 141: 'pie in the sky'; ibid, at 147: 'a symbolic plaything without substantive content'. However, some authors have emphasised the potential of EU citizenship; cf C. Tomuschat, 'Staatsbürgerschaft-Unionsbürgerschaft-Weltbürgerschaft', in J. Drexl et al (eds), Europäische Demokratie (Nomos, 1999) 73, at 74: in the long run, the introduction of EU Citizenship might prove to be the most important decision taken at the inter-governmental conference, even more important than introducing the Euro; see further D. O'Keeffe, 'Union Citizenship', in D. O'Keeffe (ed), Legal Issues of the Maastricht Treaty (Chancery Law Publishing, 1994) 87, at 106: 'The importance of the Union citizenship provisions lies not in their content but rather in the promise they hold out for the future'.
5. cf, eg, ECJ, Case C-184/99, Grzelczyk[2001] ECR I-6193, para 31.
6. ECJ, Case C-85/96, Martínez Sala[1998] ECR I-2691; Case C-274/96, Bickel and Franz[1998] ECR I-7637; Grzelczyk, ibid; Case C-378/97, Wijsenbeek[1999] ECR I-6207; Case C-135/99, Elsen[2000] ECR I-10409; Case C-224/98, D'Hoop[2002] ECR I-6191; Case C-413/99, Baumbast and R[2002] ECR I-7091; Case C-148/02, Avello[2003] ECR I-11613; Case C-138/02, Collins[2004] ECR I-2703; Case C-224/02, Pusa[2004] ECR I-5763; Case C-456/02, Trojani[2004] ECR I-7573; Case C-200/02, Chen/Zhu[2004] ECR I-9925; Case C-209/03, Dany Bidar[2005] ECR I-2119; Case C-403/03, Schempp[2005] ECR I-6421; Case C-258/04, Ioannidis[2005] ECR I-8275; Case C-96/04, Standesamt Niebüll[2006] ECR I-3561; Case C-406/04, De Cuyper[2006] ECR I-6947; Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451; Case C-520/04, Turpeinen[2006] ECR I-10685; Case C-50/06, EC v Netherlands[2007] ECR I-4383; Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957; Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849; Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161; Case C-152/05, EC v Germany[2008] ECR I-39; Case C-398/06, EC v Netherlands[2008] ECR I-56; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993; Case C-33/07, Jipa[2008] ECR I-5157; Case C-127/08, Metock et al[2008] ECR I-6241; Case C-353/06, Grunkin and Paul[2008] ECR I-7639; Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507; Case C-221/07, Zablocka-Weyhermüller[2008] ECR I-9029; Case C-524/06, Huber[2008] ECR I-9705; joined Cases C-22 and C-23/08, Vatsouras und Koupatantze[2009] ECR I-4585; Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117; Case 535/08, Pignataro[2009] ECR I-50; Case C-135/08; Rottmann (unreported); Case C-310/08, Ibrahim (unreported); C-480/08, Teixeira (unreported); Case C-34/09, Ruiz Zambrano (unreported); pending: Case C-162/09, Lassal (unreported); Case C-145/09, Tsakouridis (opinion of AG Bot of 8 June 2010); Case C-208/09, Sayn-Wittgenstein (opinion of AG Sharpston of 14 October 2010); Case C-325/09, Dias; Case C-384/09, Infusino; Case C-391/09, Runevic-Vardyn and Wardyn; Case C-434/09, McCarthy.
7. The literature on Union citizenship is abundant: cf, eg, A. von Bogdandy and S. Bitter, 'Unionsbürgerschaft und Diskriminierungsverbot', in Essays in Honour of Zuleeg (Nomos, 2002) 309
8. C. Calliess, 'Der Unionsbürger: Status, Dogmatik und Dynamik', in A. Hatje and P.M. Huber, 'Unionsbürgerschaft und soziale Rechte', (2007) Supplement 1 Europarecht 7
9. M. Dougan, 'Fees, Grants, Loans and Dole Cheques: Who Covers the Costs of Migrant Education within the EU?', (2005) 42 Common Market Law Review 943
10. M. Dougan, 'The Constitutional Dimension to the Case Law on Union Citizenship', (2006) 31 European Law Review 613
11. A. Epiney, 'The Scope of Article 12 EC: Some Remarks on the Influence of European Citizenship', (2007) 13 European Law Journal 611
12. K. Hailbronner, 'Die Unionsbürgerschaft und das Ende rationaler Jurisprudenz durch den EuGH?', (2004) Neue Juristische Wochenschrift 2185
13. K. Hailbronner, 'Union Citizenship and Access to Social Benefits', (2005) 42 Common Market Law Review 1245
14. P.M. Huber, 'Die gleiche Freiheit der Unionsbürger', (2008) 68 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht 307
15. F.G. Jacobs, 'Citizenship of the European Union-A Legal Analysis', (2007) 13 European Law Journal 591
16. S. Kadelbach, 'Union Citizenship', in A. von Bogdandy and J. Bast (eds), Principles of European Constitutional Law (Hart, 2009), 443
17. D. Kochenov, 'Ius Tractum of Many Faces: European Citizenship and the Difficult Relationship Between Status and Rights', (2009) 15 Columbia Journal Of European Law 169
18. J. Kokott, 'Die Freizügigkeit der Unionsbürger als neue Grundfreiheit', in Essays in Honour of Tomuschat (Engel, 2006), 207
19. Kostakopoulou, Citizenship, op cit n 3 supra; Kostakopoulou, 'Nested "Old" and "New" Citizenship', op cit n 3 supra, at 389
20. Kostakopoulou, 'European Union Citizenship: Writing the Future', (2007) 13 European Law Journal 623
21. W. Maas, Creating European Citizens (Rowman & Littlefield, 2007)
22. W. Obwexer, Grundfreiheit Freizügigkeit (Manz, 2009); D. Rabenschlag, Leitbilder der Unionsbürgerschaft (Nomos, 2009); C. Schönberger, Unionsbürger (Mohr Siebeck, 2005)
23. E. Spaventa, 'Seeing the Wood despite the Trees? On the Scope of Union Citizenship and its Constitutional Effects', (2008) 45 Common Market Law Review 13
24. E. Spaventa, Free Movement of Persons in the European Union (Kluwer Law International, 2007)
25. A. Tryfonidou, 'In Search of the Aim of the EC Free Movement of Persons Provisions: Has the Court of Justice missed the Point?', (2009) 46 Common Market Law Review 1591
26. Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra; F. Wollenschläger, 'Freizügigkeit in einer EU der 27', (2009) 47 AWR-Bulletin 110
27. F. Wollenschläger, 'Die Unionsbürgerschaft und ihre Dynamik für den Integrationsprozess jenseits des Marktes', (2009) Zeitschrift für europarechtliche Studien 1; F. Wollenschläger, 'Vernetzte Angehörigkeiten. Staats- und Unionsbürgerschaft als komplementäre Zugehörigkeitsverhältnisse im Mehrebenensystem Europäische Union', in S. Boysen et al (eds), Netzwerke (Nomos, 2007), 104.
28. See the title of my book op cit n 2 supra. Cf further 'Editorial Comments', (2008) 45 Common Market Law Review 1, at 3, mentioning a 'fifth Treaty freedom' and a 'fifth fundamental freedom'; Kokott, ibid: 'neue Grundfreiheit'; Obwexer, ibid.
29. P.-H. Spaak, Bericht der Delegationsleiter an die Aussenminister vom 21.04.1956 (1956), at 8.
30. cf H.J. Küsters, Die Gründung der Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft (Nomos, 1982), at 175 et seq.
31. cf for an extensive account of the development of the free movement of persons under community law Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 19 et seq.
32. cf ECJ, Case 26/62, van Gend en Loos[1963] ECR 3, at 16 et seq.
33. This concept has been introduced by H.P. Ipsen and G. Nicolaysen, 'Haager Konferenz für Europarecht und Bericht über die aktuelle Entwicklung des Gemeinschaftsrechts', (1964) Neue Juristische Wochenschrift, 339, at 340 et seq with n 2; H.P. Ipsen, Europäisches Gemeinschaftsrecht (Mohr, 1972), at 187.
34. To quote the formulation used in ECJ, Case C-55/94, Gebhard[1995] ECR I-4165, para 37.
35. cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 41 et seq.
36. cf D. O'Keeffe, 'Equal Rights for Migrants', (1985) 5 Yearbook of European Law 93, at 95, as well as the ECJ's initial interpretation in Case 76/72, Michel S. [1973] ECR 457, paras 6 and 10; the ECJ went on to say, however, that the advantage need not be limited to workers.
37. cf ECJ, Case 207/78, Even[1979] ECR 2019, para 22.
38. cf for social assistance: ECJ, Case 249/83, Hoeckx[1985] ECR 973, para 22; Case 122/84, Scrivener[1985] ECR 1027, para 26; for discounted railway tariffs for large families: Case 32/75, Cristini[1975] ECR 1085, paras 10 and 13.
39. cf ECJ, Case 59/85, Reed[1986] ECR 1283, paras 24 et seq. This ruling has been relativised in Case C-356/98, Kaba I[2000] ECR I-2623.
40. ECJ, Case 137/84, Mutsch[1985] ECR 2681, paras 14 et seq.
41. cf M. Dony, 'Les discriminations fondées sur la nationalité dans la jurisprudence de la cour de justice des communautés européennes', in E. Bribosia et al (eds), Union Européenne et Nationalités (Bruylant, 1999), 45, at 47; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 34 et seq. This development is criticised because of a lacking legislatory decision by B. Sundberg-Weitman, Discrimination on Grounds of Nationality (North-Holland Publishing Company, 1977), at 167 et seq.
42. ECJ, Case 8/77, Sagulo et al[1977] ECR 1495, para 12. Cf further Case 137/84, Mutsch[1985] ECR 2681, para 12.
43. ECJ, Case C-334/94, EC v France[1996] ECR I-1307, paras 20 et seq; Case C-151/96, EC v Ireland[1997] ECR I-3327, paras 13 et seq.
44. ECJ, Case C-111/91, EC v Luxemburg[1993] ECR I-817, para 17. Cf similarly Case 63/86, EC v Italy[1988] ECR 29, paras 14 et seq; Case 305/87, EC v Greece[1989] ECR 1461, paras 21 et seq.
45. cf Case 249/83, Hoeckx (social assistance) [1985] ECR 973, paras 23 et seq; Case C-299/01, EC v Luxembourg (minimum salary) [2002] ECR I-5899, paras 12 and 14; Case 157/84, Frascogna (minimum old-age pension) [1985] ECR 1739, para 24; Case C-326/90, EC v Belgium (allowances for handicapped persons) [1992] ECR I-5517; cf further (returning national) Case C-185/04, Öberg (child raising allowances) [2006] ECR I-1453, paras 14 et seq. A minimum duration of residence is, however, favoured by F. Schockweiler, 'La portée du principe de non-discrimination de l'article 7 du traité CEE', (1991) Rivista Di Diritto Europeo, 3, at 23 et seq; J. Steiner, 'The Right to Welfare: Equality and Equity under Community Law', (1985) 10 European Law Review 21, at 41.
46. cf ECJ, Case C-388/01, EC v Italy[2003] ECR I-721, paras 19 and 22; Case C-109/04, Kranemann[2005] ECR I-2421, para 31; Öberg, ibid, para 21. Financial considerations may be taken into account as 'ultima ratio' when severe financial burdens on national social security schemes have to be prevented. Cf in this respect ECJ, Case C-120/95, Decker[1998] ECR I-1831; Case C-158/96, Kohll[1998] ECR I-1931; Öberg, ibid, paras 20 et seq.
47. In 2008, only 2.3% of all Union citizens lived and worked in a Member State other than their home country, a quota which has remained more or less constant over the last three decades; cf. Communication from the Commission 'Reaffirming the free movement of workers: rights and major developments', COM (2010) 373 final, p 2. Cf further Schönberger, op cit n 6 supra, at 354 et seq.
48. ECJ, Case 149/79, EC v Belgium I[1980] ECR 3881, para 10.
49. R.W. Davis, 'Citizenship of the Union Rights for All?', (2002) 27 European Law Review 121, at 123 et seq; AG Jacobs, in: ECJ, Case C-274/96, Bickel and Franz[1998] ECR I-7637, para 27; AG La Pergola, Case C-85/96, Martínez Sala[1998] ECR I-2691, para 21; AG La Pergola, Case C-356/98, Kaba I[2000] ECR I-2623, para 54. Cf also G. Ress, 'Die Europäische Union und die neue juristische Qualität der Beziehungen zu den Europäischen Gemeinschaften', (1992) Juristische Schulung 985, at 987 according to whom a 'Europe of Citizens' prohibits discrimination in the political sphere; similarly (de lege ferenda) R.C.A. White, 'Free Movement, Equal Treatment, and Citizenship of the Union', (2005) 54 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 885, at 902.
50. ECJ, Case 66/85, Lawrie-Blum[1986] ECR 2121, para 26; Case 225/85, EC v Italy[1987] ECR 2625, para 7; Case C-405/01, Colegio de Oficiales[2003] ECR I-10391, para 41.
51. The ECJ has excluded from the claim to national treatment any benefits paid to victims of war, or its consequences, based on a scheme of national recognition; cf Case 207/78, Even[1979] ECR 2019, paras 23 et seq; Case C-386/02, Baldinger[2004] ECR I-8411, para 19. Cf, however, Case 15/69, Ugliola[1969] ECR 363, paras 4 et seq.
52. ECJ, Case 41/74, van Duyn[1974] ECR 1337, paras 18 et seq; Case 67/74, Bonsignore[1975] ECR 297, para 6; Case 36/75, Rutili[1975] ECR 1219, paras 26 and 28; Case 30/77, Bouchereau[1977] ECR 1999, paras 29, 33 and 35.
53. cf for an extensive account of this development: Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 27 et seq.
54. ECJ, Case 136/78, Auer[1979] ECR 437, para 21. Cf further Case 115/78, Knoors[1979] ECR 399, para 17.
55. cf for an extensive account of the development of the ECJ's jurisprudence Wollenschläger, ibid, at 43 et seq: after only terminologically abandoning the discrimination concept did the ECJ materially extend the principle of non-discrimination beyond national treatment; finally, the court recognised that the market freedoms guarantee a right to unrestricted market access applicable irrespective of any discrimination.
56. ECJ, Case C-415/93, Bosman[1995] ECR I-4921, paras 94 et seq.
57. cf ECJ, Case C-79/01, Payroll[2002] ECR I-8923, para 26.
58. Case C-415/93, Bosman[1995] ECR I-4921, paras 98 et seq.
59. D. Ehlers, 'Die Grundfreiheiten des europäischen Gemeinschaftsrechts', (2001) Jura 266, at 270; A. Mühl, Diskriminierung und Beschränkung (Duncker & Humblot, 2004), 231; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 55.
60. cf C. Barnard, 'Fitting the Remaining Pieces into the Goods and Persons Jigsaw?', (2001) 26 European Law Review 35, at 54 et seq; Ehlers, ibid, at 270; R. Streinz, 'Konvergenz der Grundfreiheiten', in Essays in Honour of Rudolf (Beck, 2001) 199, at 208 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 55.
61. Mühl, op cit n 38 supra, at 231 et seq; Wollenschläger, ibid, at 55 et seq.
62. cf O. Due and C. Gulmann, 'Restrictions à la libre circulation intracommunautaire', in Essays in Honour of Rodríguez Iglesias (BWV, 2003), 377, at 378 et seq; M.P. Maduro, 'Harmony and Dissonance in Free Movement', in M. Andenas and W.-H. Roth (eds), Services and Free Movement in EU law (Oxford University Press, 2002), 41, at 63 et seq; D. O'Keeffe and A.F. Bavasso, 'Four Freedoms, one Market and National Competence', in Essays in Honour of Lord Slynn of Hadley (Kluwer Law International, 2000), 541, at 545 et seq; H. Toner, 'Non-discriminatory Obstacles to the Exercise of Treaty Rights', (2004) 23 Yearbook of European Law 275, at 280 et seq; S. Weatherill, 'After Keck', (1996) 33 Common Market Law Review 885, at 901; R.C.A. White, Workers, Establishment, and Services in the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2004), at 261 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 54 et seq.
63. cf, eg, N. Bernard, 'Discrimination and Free Movement in EC Law', (1996) 45 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 82
64. G. Davies, Nationality Discrimination in the European Internal Market (Kluwer Law International, 2003)
65. T. Kingreen, Die Struktur der Grundfreiheiten des europäischen Gemeinschaftsrechts (Duncker & Humblot, 1999)
66. T. Kingreen, 'Grundfreiheiten', in A. von Bogdandy and J. Bast (eds), Europäisches Verfassungsrecht (Springer, 2nd edn, 2009), 705
67. G. Marenco, 'Pour une interpretation traditionelle de la notion de mesure d'effet équivalent à une restriction quantitative', (1984) Cahiers De Droit Européen 291
68. J. Snell, Goods and Services in EC Law (Oxford University Press, 2002).
69. cf in this respect E. Spaventa, 'From Gebhard to Carpenter: Towards a (Non-)Economic European Constitution', (2004) 41 Common Market Law Review 743, at 765: 'The Community right then becomes akin to the claim that, in national contemporary liberal democracies, citizens have against their own State not to be unjustly limited in their freedom, be this freedom economic or of another kind'.
70. Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 56.
71. To quote the formulation used in ECJ, Case C-55/94, Gebhard[1995] ECR I-4165, para 37.
72. ECJ, Case C-415/93, Bosman[1995] ECR I-4921, para 103; Case C-190/98, Graf[2000] ECR I-493, para 23. Cf for a critical view of the concept of 'market access'J. Snell 'The Notion of Market Access: A Concept or a Slogan?', (2010) 47 Common Market Law Review 437, at 467 et seq; cf further on this notion and tendencies towards convergence among the fundamental freedoms: A. Tryfonidou 'Further Steps on the Road to Convergence among the Market Freedoms', (2010) 35 European Law Review 36, at 47 et seq. It is not possible, however, to distinguish between the if and how of the exercise of an economic activity and just exclude the latter from the scope of the fundamental freedoms (cf in this respect J. Mischo, 'Les Restrictions à la liberté d'établissement', in Essays in Honour of Schockweiler (Nomos, 1999), 445, at 458 et seq); for also the latter may hinder market access (cf ECJ, Case C-464/02, EC v Denmark[2005] ECR I-7929, para 34 et seq; Barnard, op cit n 39 supra, at 58; C. Costello, 'Market Access All Areas', (2000) 27 Legal Issues of Economic Integration 267, at 273 et seq; Snell, ibid, at 445 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 56 et seq).
73. cf, eg, ECJ, Case C-190/98, Graf[2000] ECR I-493, para 25; Joined Cases C-418-421/93, C-460-462/93, C-464/93, C-9-11/94, C-14/94, C-15/94, C-23/94, C-24/94 and C-332/94, Semeraro et al[1996] ECR I-2975, para 32. Cf in this respect Snell, ibid, at 460 et seq. Cf on the significance of the seriousness of the consequences, on the one hand, ECJ, Case C-134/03, Viacom[2005] ECR I-1167, para 38, and, on the other hand, Case 270/83, EC v France (in the context of discriminations) [1986] ECR 273, para 21; Case C-49/89, Corsica Ferries[1989] ECR 4441, para 8; Case C-34/98, EC v France[2000] ECR I-995, para 49; Case C-9/02, de Lasteyrie du Saillant[2004] ECR I-2409, para 43.
74. cf also for alternative tests, Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 56 et seq. An alternative combination of these criteria is also advocated by Toner, op cit n 41 supra, at 297, cf also at 283 et seq: 'Any measure which has direct or substantial (possibly exclusionary) effect is incompatible with the Treaty unless objectively justified by imperative reasons of public interest'. S. Weatherill, 'After Keck: Some Thoughts on How to Clarify the Clarification', (1996) 33 Common Market Law Review 885, at 896 et seq, proposes a cumulative combination of both criteria: measures which 'prevent or impose a direct and substantial impediment of access to the market in another Member State'. Similarly, refering to the opinion of AG Fennelly in the Graf case [Case C-190/98, (2000) ECR I-493] A. Biondi, 'In and Out of the Internal Market', (1999/2000) 19 Yearbook of European Law 469, at 488 et seq. Cf further Snell, op cit n 46 supra, at 446 et seq.
75. ECJ, Case C-55/94, Gebhard[1995] ECR I-4165, para 37.
76. In this context, three acts of secondary legislation must also be mentioned which introduced a right of residence for economically inactive persons (Council Directive 90/364/EEC of 28 June 1990 on the right of residence, [1990] OJ L180/26; Council Directive 90/365/EEC of 28 June 1990 on the right of residence for employees and self-employed persons who have ceased their occupational activity, [1990] OJ L180/28; Council Directive 93/96/EEC of 29 October 1993 on the right of residence for students, [1993] OJ L317/59). These directives, which entered into force shortly before the introduction of Union citizenship after more than a decade of legislative procedure (cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 101 et seq), constitute, on the one hand, a further step towards overcoming a purely market-oriented regime of free movement; on the other hand, the economic conditions of residence (sufficient means of existence; comprehensive health insurance) demanded by these directives were such as to show that the legal position of economically inactive persons lagged behind the position of market actors whose right of residence was not made subject to such conditions. All three directives have in the meantime been repealed by Directive 2004/38/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States, amending Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 and repealing Directives 64/221/EEC, 68/360/EEC, 72/194/EEC, 73/148/EEC, 75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC, 90/364/EEC, 90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC, [2004] OJ L229/35.
77. Similarly D. O'Keeffe, 'Trends in the Free Movement of Persons within the European Communities', in Essays in Honour of Walsh (Round Hall Press, 1992), 263, at 272 et seq
78. S. O'Leary, 'The Social Dimension of Community Citizenship', in Rosas and Antola, op cit n 3 supra, 156, at 158 et seq.
79. ECJ, Case 53/81, Levin[1982] ECR 1035, para 13; Case 66/85, Lawrie-Blum[1986] ECR, 2121, para 16.
80. ECJ, Case 66/85, Lawrie-Blum[1986] ECR 2121, para 26; Case 225/85, EC v Italy[1987] ECR 2625, para 7; Case C-405/01, Colegio de Oficiales[2003] ECR I-10391, para 41. Cf further n 191 infra.
81. ECJ, Case 53/81, Levin[1982] ECR 1035, paras 16 and 21; Case 344/87, Bettray[1989] ECR 1621, para 13.
82. ECJ, Case 149/79, EC v Belgium I[1980] ECR 3881, para 10; Case 149/79, EC v Belgium II[1982] ECR 1845, para 7; Case 307/84, EC v France[1986] ECR 1725, para 12; Case 66/85, Lawrie-Blum[1986] ECR 2121, para 27; Case C-47/02, Anker et al[2003] ECR I-10477, para 58.
83. Of particular relevance insofar as the access to social benefits denied to job seekers is concerned, cf ECJ, Case 316/85, Lebon[1987] ECR 2811, para 25 et seq.
84. cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, 66 et seq.
85. ECJ, Case 39/86, Lair[1988] ECR 3161, para 29 et seq; Case C-357/89, Raulin[1992] ECR I-1027, para 20 et seq; Case C-3/90, Bernini[1992] ECR I-1071, para 18 et seq; Case C-413/01, Ninni-Orasche[2003] ECR I-13187, para 34 et seq.
86. Thus, some did not recognise a right of residence derived from holding the status of a recipient of services: AG Trabucchi, in ECJ, Case 118/75, Watson and Belman[1976] ECR 1185, at 1203; AG Capotorti, in Case 66/77, Kuyken[1977] ECR 2311, sub 3; further Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 76 et seq
87. In Case 118/75, Watson und Belman[1976] ECR 1185, the ECJ did not address such a submission by AG Trabucchi; this is criticised by C. Tomuschat, 'Le Principe de Proportionnalité', (1977) Cahiers De Droit Européen 97, at 101 et seq.
88. ECJ, Joined Cases 286/82 and 26/83, Luisi and Carbone[1984] ECR 377, para 12 et seq. Similarly Case C-186/87, Cowan[1989] ECR 195, para 15; Case C-348/96, Calfa[1999] ECR I-11, para 16; Case C-215/03, Oulane[2005] ECR I-1215, para 37. The ECJ's jurisprudence seems less daring if one considers that such a dimension in the freedom of services-despite its not being mentioned in the EC Treaty (cf Art 60(3) EEC; now Art 57(3) TFEU)-has been in principle recognised right from the beginning; cf EC-General Report 3/1960, at 109 et seq, Art 1(1)(a) of Directive 64/220, and U. Everling, 'Von der Freizügigkeit der Arbeitnehmer zum Europäischen Bürgerrecht', in G. Nicolaysen and H.-J. Rabe (eds), Europäisches Arbeits- und Sozialrecht, (1990) Supplement 1 Europarecht 81, at 93 et seq.
89. ECJ, Case 63/86, EC v Italy[1988] ECR 29, paras 18 et seq.
90. ECJ, Case C-186/87, Cowan[1989] ECR 195, paras 17 et seq. The scope of the claim to national treatment is controversial. It is limited by M. Dougan and E. Spaventa, 'Wish You Weren't Here ', in M. Dougan and E. Spaventa (eds), Social Welfare and EU Law (Hart, 2005), 181, at 196 et seq; for a comprehensive claim to national treatment, see S. O'Leary, 'The Principle of Equal Treatment on Grounds of Nationality in Article 6 EC', in A. Dashwood and S. O'Leary (eds), The Principle of Equal Treatment in EC Law (Sweet & Maxwell , 1997), 105, at 112 et seq; Schockweiler, op cit n 24 supra, at 22 et seq.
91. cf further S. Völker, Passive Dienstleistungsfreiheit im Europäischen Gemeinschaftsrecht (Duncker & Humblot, 1990), at 50 et seq.
92. K. Lenaerts, 'L'égalité de traitement en droit communautaire. Un principe unique aux apparences multiples', (1991) Cahiers De Droit Européen 3, at 28. Similarly O'Keeffe, op cit n 51 supra, at 270 et seq.
93. ECJ, Case 196/87, Steymann[1988] ECR 6159, para 16 et seq. Confirmed in Case C-200/02, Chen/Zhu[2004] ECR I-9925, para 22. See wider G.F. Mancini, 'The Making of a Constitution for Europe', (1989) 26 Common Market Law Review 595, at 608. Cf in view of distinctions necessitated by this jurisprudence Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 78.
94. cf for an extensive analysis of this development Wollenschläger, ibid, at 80 et seq.
95. ECJ, Case 152/82, Forcheri[1983] ECR 2323, paras 13 et seq; Case 293/83, Gravier[1985] ECR 593, paras 19 et seq; Case 24/86, Blaizot[1988] ECR 379, paras 16 et seq.
96. ECJ, Case C-357/89, Raulin[1992] ECR I-1027, paras 30 et seq. Concurring, see E. Klein and A. Haratsch, 'Neuere Entwicklungen des Rechts der Europäischen Gemeinschaften-2. Teil', (1994) Die ÖffentlicheVerwaltung 133, at 134.
97. cf ECJ, Case 293/83, Gravier[1985] ECR 593, para 23 et seq; Case 242/87, EC v Council[1989] ECR 1425, para 29; M.J. Garot, La Citoyenneté de l'Union Européenne (L'Harmattan, 1999), 85. Restrictively, see A. Randelzhofer, 'Marktbürgerschaft-Unionsbürgerschaft-Staatsbürgerschaft', in Essays in memory of Grabitz (Beck, 1995), 581, at 589.
98. ECJ, Case C-357/89, Raulin[1992] ECR I-1027, para 38 et seq.
99. ECJ, Case 39/86, Lair[1988] ECR 3161, para 14 et seq; Case 197/86, Brown[1988] ECR 3205, para 18; Case C-109/92, Wirth[1993] ECR I-6447, para 25.
100. ECJ, Case 344/87, Bettray[1989] ECR 1621.
101. ECJ, Case 39/86, Lair[1988] ECR 3161, para 15. Cf further Case 197/86, Brown[1988] ECR 3205, para 18; Case C-109/92, Wirth[1993] ECR I-6447, para 25.
102. cf ECJ, Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161.
103. cf for similar constellations: ECJ, Case 66/77, Kuyken[1977] ECR 2311, paras 20 et seq (denial of social benefits because of secondary education abroad); Case C-112/91, Werner[1993] ECR I-429, para 16 (tax disadvantage from being domiciled abroad). In recent decisions the ECJ, however, applied the market freedoms to such cases in which a person only moved her/his domicile to another Member State (ECJ, Case C-212/05, Hartmann[2007] ECR I-6303 and ECJ, Case C-152/03 Ritter-Coulais[2006], ECR I-1711). Following introduction of Union citizenship, these situations are now covered by EU law; yet applying the general right to free movement (Art 21 TFEU) instead of the market freedoms would have been more appropriate since these situations lack an economic-based transnational context. Cf further Tryfonidou, op cit n 6 supra.
104. R. Plender, 'An Incipient Form of European Citizenship', in F.G. Jacobs (ed), European Law and the Individual (Noth-Holland Publishing Company, 1976), 39.
105. cf Tindemans, 'Report on the EU (29 December 1975)', EC-Bulletin, Supplement 1/1976; Resolution of the European Parliament on the granting of special rights to the citizens of the European Community (16 November 1977), [1977] OJ C299/26; Report of the Adonnino-Committee, EC-Bulletin, Supplement 7/1985, at 13 et seq; Communication from the EC: A People's Europe (24 June 1988), COM (88) 331 final, EC-Bulletin, Supplement 2/88. Cf for an extensive account of the emergence of a European citizenship Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 90 et seq.
106. cf the assessments quoted supra, n 3.
107. cf Hailbronner, 'Die Unionsbürgerschaft', op cit n 6 supra.
108. cf n 50 supra.
109. D. Pollard, 'Rights of Free Movement', in N.A. Neuwahl and A. Rosas (eds), The European Union and Human Rights (Nijhoff, 1995), 116.
110. Kostakopoulou, Citizenship, op cit n 3 supra, at 66. Equally restrictive, see N. Bernard, Multilevel Governance in the European Union (Kluwer Law International, 2002), at 186 et seq; P. Magnette, La citoyenneté européen (Edition de l'Université de Bruxelles, 1999), at 162: '"la valeur ajoutée" de la citoyenneté de l'Union apparaît nulle jusqu'à present'; D. O'Keeffe, 'Union Citizenship', in D. O'Keeffe and P.M. Twomey, Legal Issues of the Amsterdam Treaty (Hart, 1999), at 93 et seq; S. O'Leary, 'The Relationship between Community Citizenship and the Protection of Fundamental Rights in Community Law', (1995) 32 Common Market Law Review 519, at 519 et seq
111. S. O'Leary, European Union Citizenship (Institute for Public Policy Research, 1996), at 92; J. Shaw, 'Citizenship of the Union: Towards Post-National Membership?', in Academy of European Law (ed), Collected Courses-1995 European Community Law, Vol 6, Book 1 (Kluwer Law International, 1998), 247; J. Shaw, 'European Union Citizenship', (1997) 3 European Public Law 413, at 416 et seq; Weiler, 'Les droits des citoyens européens', op cit n 3 supra, at 35 and 39.
112. cf only W. Kaufmann-Bühler, in C.O. Lenz and K.-D. Borchardt (eds), EGV (Bundesanzeiger, 2nd edn, 1999), Art 18(1) EC-repealed, however, in the 3rd edition 2003, Art 18(1) EC.
113. cf for an account of this debate Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 126 et seq.
114. cf R. Adam, 'Prime riflessioni sulla cittadinanza dell'Unione', (1992) Rivista Diritto Internazionale 622, at 641; D. Martin and E. Guild, Free Movement of Persons in the European Union (Butterworths, 1996), at 97 et seq; Schönberger, op cit n 6 supra, at 320 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 126 et seq; M. Wollenschläger, 'Freizügigkeit und Aufenthaltsfreiheit', in S. Heselhaus and C. Nowak (eds), Handbuch der Europäischen Grundrechte (Beck, 2006), § 15, para 11 et seq.
115. Left open in ECJ, Case C-85/96, Martínez Sala[1998] ECR I-2691, para 60; Case C-378/97, Wijsenbeek[1999] ECR I-6207, para 41 et seq; Case C-357/98, Yiadom[2000] ECR I-9265, para 23; Case C-192/99, Kaur[2001] ECR I-1237, paras 15 and 28.
116. ECJ, Case C-413/99, Baumbast[2002] ECR I-7091, para 80 et seq. Confirmed in Case C-456/02, Trojani[2004] ECR I-7573, para 31; Case C-408/03, EC v Belgium[2006] ECR I-2647, para 34; Case C-50/06, EC v Netherlands[2007] ECR I-4383, para 32; Case C-398/06, EC v Netherlands[2008] ECR I-56, para 27.
117. cf ECJ, Case C-456/02, Trojani[2004] ECR I-7573, para 32; Case C-50/06, EC v Netherlands[2007] ECR I-4383, para 33; Case C-398/06, EC v Netherlands[2008] ECR I-56, para 28; Case C-33/07, Jipa[2008] ECR I-5157, para 21; Case C-524/06, Huber[2008] ECR I-9705, para 54; A.P. van der Mei, Free Movement of Persons within the European Community (Hart, 2003), at 46 et seq; S. O'Leary, European Union Citizenship (Institute for Public Policy Research, 1996), at 136. The invalidity of the restrictions is advocated by V. Constantinesco, 'La citoyenneté de l'Union', in J. Schwarze (ed), Vom Binnenmarkt zur Europäischen Union (Nomos, 1993), at 29 et seq, as well as by the Portugese government (quoted in Opinion of AG Alber, in ECJ, Case C-184/99, Grzelczyk[2001] ECR I-6193, para 52).
118. cf further Dougan, 'The Constitutional Dimension', op cit n 6 supra, at 615; AG Cosmas, in ECJ, Case C-378/97, Wijsenbeek[1999] ECR I-6201, para 80.
119. I. Pernice, 'Der verfassungsrechtliche Status der Unionsbürger im Vorfeld des Vertrages über eine Verfassung für Europa', in Essays in Honour of Rodríguez Iglesias (BWV, 2003), 177, at 187 et seq. AG Cosmas, in ECJ, Case C-378/97, Wijsenbeek[1999] ECR I-6201, paras 95 et seq, too, rejects a literal transposition of the limitations applicable in the context of the market freedoms into the field of the application of Art 21 TFEU. Cf further C. Costello, 'Annotation to ECJ, Case C-348/96-Donatella Calfa', (2000) 37 Common Market Law Review 817, at 827; Martin and Guild, op cit n 86 supra, at 99 et seq; De lege ferenda: V. Lippolis, La Cittadinanza Europea (Il Mulino, 1994), at 120. In favour of sticking to the previous interpretation, see J. Pomoell, European Union Citizenship in Focus (ECI Research Reports, 2000), at 44 et seq.
120. ECJ, Joined Cases C-482/01 and 493/01, Orfanopoulos and Olivieri[2004] ECR I-5257, para 64, with further references.
121. ECJ, Joined Cases C-482/01 and 493/01, Orfanopoulos and Olivieri[2004] ECR I-5257, para 64 (emphasis added). Cf further AG Léger, in Case C-215/03, Oulane[2005] ECR I-1215, para 50: 'Union citizenship, which "is destined to be the fundamental status of nationals of the Member States", is a factor which must be actively taken into account for interpreting all the Community rules on the freedom of movement of persons'; cf further Huber, op cit n 6 supra, at 317.
122. Directive 2004/38/EC, n 50 supra. Cf in particular its recitals 23 and 24.
123. cf further ECJ, Case C-33/07, Jipa[2008] ECR I-5157, para 29.
124. The precise scope of these exceptions remains to be determined, cf in this respect opinion of AG Bot, in ECJ, Case C-145/09, Tsakouridis, pending.
125. cf only E. Pérez Vera, 'Citoyenneté de l'Union Européenne, Nationalité et Condition des Étrangers', [1996 (1998)] 261 Recueil des Cours 243, at 350 et seq.
126. Kokott, op cit n 6 supra, at 221 et seq; D.H. Scheuing, 'Freizügigkeit als Unionsbürgerrecht', (2003) Europarecht 744, at 769 et seq. Cf for an extensive account of the critique of the economic conditions of residence Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 166 et seq.
127. van der Mei, op cit n 89 supra, at 220.
128. M. Condinanzi, A. Lang and B. Nascimbene, Cittadinanza dell'Unione e libera circolazione delle persone (Giuffrè, 2003), at 34.
129. cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 176 et seq; further Spaventa, op cit n 6 supra, at 26 et seq.
130. ECJ, Case C-413/99, Baumbast and R[2002] ECR I-7091, paras 90 et seq; Case C-456/02, Trojani[2004] ECR I-7573, paras 30 et seq; Case C-200/02, Chen/Zhu[2004] ECR I-9925, para 33; Case C-408/03, EC v Belgium[2006] ECR I-2647, paras 38 et seq; Case C-398/06, EC v Netherlands[2008] ECR I-56, para 29. Already in the Grzelczyk case (Case C-184/99, [2001] ECR I-6193, paras 37 et seq) the ECJ relativised the economic conditions of residence and allowed a student temporarily not fulfilling them to invoke Art 18 EC (now Art 21 TFEU). This decision, however, was based on a different methodological approach. The ECJ interpreted the economic conditions of residence strictly in line with the criterion of financial solidarity among Member States demanded by the directive, but did not apply the principle of proportionality. Cf for an extensive account of the development of the ECJ's jurisprudence Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 170 et seq.
131. During this three-month period a Union citizen does not enjoy the right of national treatment in respect of social assistance (cf Art 24(2) of the Directive 2004/38/EC).
132. The economic 'conditions' of residence-like the public-policy proviso (cf in this respect ECJ, Case 48/75, Royer[1976] ECR 497, paras 28 et seq; Case 118/75, Watson and Belman[1976] ECR 1185, para 20; Case 157/79, Pieck[1980] ECR 2171, para 9)-do not constitute conditions in the sense that their non-fulfilment automatically terminates the right of residence; rather their non-fulfilment only allows for an expulsion of the Union citizen in question. Cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 180 et seq and 187 et seq. Similarly, see C. Schönberger, 'Die Unionsbürgerschaft als Sozialbürgerschaft', (2006) Zeitschrift für Ausländerrecht und Ausländerpolitik 226, at 228.
133. cf recital 16 of the directive for possible criteria: 'The host Member State should examine whether it is a case of temporary difficulties and take into account the duration of residence, the personal circumstances and the amount of aid granted in order to consider whether the beneficiary has become an unreasonable burden on its social assistance system and to proceed to his expulsion'. The indeterminacy of these criteria is criticised by Hailbronner, 'Union Citizenship', op cit n 6 supra, at 1260 et seq.
134. cf in view of the five-year-criterion opinion of AG Trstenjak, in ECJ, Case C-162/09, Lassal (unreported).
135. AG Léger, in ECJ, Case C-214/94, Boukhalfa[1996] ECR I-2253, para 63.
136. See above section IIA.
137. cf however AG La Pergola, in ECJ, Case C-85/96, Martínez Sala[1998] ECR I-2691, paras 20 and 23; F. David, 'La citoyenneté de l'Union, statut fondamental des ressortissants des Etats membres', (2003) Revue trimestrielle du droit européen 561, at 575. Such a construal of Union citizenship needs to be refuted; cf C. Tomuschat, 'Annotation', (2000) 37 Common Market Law Review 449, at 456: no 'blanket right of equality'; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 216 et seq. Equality is only guaranteed vis-à-vis the Union itself; cf Art 9(1)(1) TEU: 'In all its activities, the Union shall observe the principle of the equality of its citizens, who shall receive equal attention from its institutions, bodies, offices and agencies'.
138. See the summary of the ECJ's jurisprudence by von Bogdandy and Bitter, op cit n 6 supra, at 317; cf further Spaventa, op cit n 6 supra, at 27 et seq.
139. Hailbronner, 'Die Unionsbürgerschaft', op cit n 6 supra.
140. D. Martin, 'A Big Step Forward for Union Citizens, but a Step Backwards for Legal Coherence', (2002) European Journal of Migration and Law 136.
141. For a rather broad construal cf A. Epiney, 'Neuere Rechtsprechung des EuGH in den Bereichen institutionelles Recht, allgemeines Verwaltungsrecht, Grundfreiheiten, Umwelt- und Gleichstellungsrecht', (2004) Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht 1067, at 1070: direct or indirect link to the right of free movement; for a narrower view cf S. Bode, Europarechtliche Gleichbehandlungsansprüche Studierender und ihre Auswirkungen in den Mitgliedstaaten (Nomos, 2005), at 242 et seq: equal treatment necessary for effective exercise of the right of residence.
142. Even if some of the ECJ's decisions would seem to advocate the contrary by suggesting a criterion of connectivity (cf, eg, Case C-274/96, Bickel and Franz[1998] ECR I-7637, para 16; Case C-184/99, Grzelczyk[2001] ECR I-6193, paras 32 et seq), one must not overlook the fact that these criteria are too vague to have any limiting effects-see Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 226 et seq.
143. The following argument is developed in greater detail in the author's book, op cit n 2 supra, at 231 et seq.
144. cf ibid, at 232. According to A. Epiney, 'Von Akrich über Jia bis Metock', (2008) Europarecht 840, at 848 et seq, Art 21(2) TFEU constitutes a legal basis only for measures directly facilitating the exercise of the right of free movement.
145. cf ECJ, Case 249/81, EC v Ireland[1982] ECR 4005, para 28; Joined Cases 6 and 7/73, Istituto Chemioterapico Italiano[1974] ECR 223, para 32.
146. cf for a reading of Art 3(1)(c) EC (now Art 3(3)(1) TEU, Art 26(2) TFEU) as the basis for a concurrent interpretation of the provisions on the free movement of persons R. Streinz (ed), EUV/EGV. Kommentar (Beck, 2003), Art 3 EC, para 15.
147. cf C. Barnard, The Substantive Law of the EU (Oxford University Press, 2004), at 419; Toner, op cit n 41 supra, at 295 et seq; AG Geelhoed, in ECJ, Case C-406/04, De Cuyper[2006] ECR I-6947, paras 105 et seq.
148. cf Schönberger, op cit n 6 supra, at 404 and 407 et seq.
149. ECJ, Case C-184/99, Grzelczyk[2001] ECR I-6193; Case C-456/02, Trojani[2004] ECR I-7573.
150. ECJ, Case C-209/03, Dany Bidar[2005] ECR I-2119; Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507.
151. ECJ, Case C-85/96, Martínez Sala[1998] ECR I-2691.
152. ECJ, Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117, paras 23 et seq (free annual toll disc for disabled persons).
153. cf Schönberger, op cit n 6 supra, at 407 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 253 et seq.
154. ECJ, Case C-274/96, Bickel and Franz[1998] ECR I-7637, paras 17 et seq.
155. ECJ, Case C-148/02, Avello[2003] ECR I-11613, para 25.
156. ECJ, Case C-403/03, Schempp[2005] ECR I-6421, para 19; cf further Case C-520/04, Turpeinen[2006] ECR I-10685, para 11.
157. ECJ, Case C-524/06, Huber[2008] ECR I-9705, paras 69 et seq.
158. ECJ, Case C-224/02, Pusa[2004] ECR I-5763, para 22.
159. ECJ, Case C-274/96, Bickel and Franz[1998] ECR I-7637, para 27; cf further Case C-138/02, Collins[2004] ECR I-2703, para 66; Case C-209/03, Bidar[2005] ECR I-2119, para 54; Case C-524/06, Huber[2008] ECR I-9705, para 75; Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117, paras 30 et seq.
160. ECJ, Case C-209/03, Dany Bidar[2005] ECR I-2119, paras 49 et seq; Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507, paras 49 et seq; Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117, paras 32 et seq.
161. ECJ, Case C-138/02, Collins[2004] ECR I-2703, paras 67 et seq; Case C-258/04, Ioannidis[2004] ECR I-8275, paras 30 et seq.
162. ECJ, Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117, para 34.
163. cf in this respect Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 262. A more generous position seems to be adopted by the ECJ, cf Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507, paras 48 et seq; further Case C-209/03, Dany Bidar[2005] ECR I-2119, para 56.
164. The compatibility of this exclusion with primary law has been questioned by two recent ECJ judgements (Case C-138/02, Collins[2004] ECR I-2703; Case C-258/04, Ioannidis[2005] ECR I-8275) extending the jobseeker's right to non-discrimination (under the free movement of workers, Art 45(2) TFEU) to benefits 'of a financial nature intended to facilitate access to employment in the labour market of a Member State' provided that there is a 'connection between persons who claim entitlement to such an allowance and [the host Member State's] employment market'. A clarification was expected from the Vatsouras case; the court, however, distinguished such benefits from '"social assistance" within the meaning of Article 24(2) of Directive 2004/38' (ECJ, Joined Cases C-22 and C-23/08, Vatsouras and Koupatantze[2009] ECR I-4585, para 45). Cf for a detailed discussion of this matter D. Damjanovic, 'Annotation to Joined Cases C-22/08 & C-23/08-Vatsouras and Koupatantze', (2010) 47 Common Market Law Review 847
165. M. Dougan, 'Free Movement: The Workseeker as Citizen', (2001) The Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies 93
166. O. Golynker, 'Jobseekers' rights in the European Union: Challenges of Changing the Paradigm of Social Solidarity', (2005) 30 European Law Review 111
167. J. Meulman and H. de Waele, 'Funding the Life of Brian: Jobseekers, Welfare Shopping and the Frontier of European Citizenship', (2004) 31 Legal Issues of Economic Integration 275
168. O. Golynker, 'Case C-158/07, Jacqueline Förster v. Hoofddirectie van de Informatie Beheer Groep, Judgment of the Court (Grand Chamber) of 18 November 2008', (2009) 46 Common Market Law Review 2021, at 2027 et seq; E. Muir, 'Statut et droits du demandeur d'emploi-travailleur-citoyen', (2004) Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne 249; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 272 et seq.
169. ECJ, Case C-103/08, Gottwald[2009] ECR I-9117, para 23 et seq.
170. cf section IIA.
171. ECJ, Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507, paras 45 et seq. Cf, however, AG Mazák, ibid, para 130: '[I]t can reasonably be assumed that a number of students may have established a substantial degree of integration into society well before the expiry of that period'. For comments on the Förster case, see Golynker, 'Case C-158/07', op cit n 136 supra, at 2021.
172. cf above section II. Cf further n 191 infra.
173. cf the references in n 28 supra.
174. To quote the formulation in ECJ, Case C-55/94, Gebhard[1995] ECR I-4165, para 37. Cf for an analysis of this process Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 41 et seq.
175. cf for instance, ECJ, Case C-224/98, d'Hoop[2002] ECR I-6191, para 31.
176. ECJ, Case C-406/04, De Cuyper [2006] ECR I-6947.
177. ECJ, Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993; Case C-221/07, Zablocka-Weyhermüller[2008] ECR I-9029.
178. ECJ, Case C-152/05, EC v Germany[2008] ECR I-39.
179. ECJ, Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161.
180. ECJ, Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957; Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849.
181. cf further ECJ, Case C-135/99, Elsen[2000] ECR I-10409, validation of periods of child-rearing completed in another Member State in the context of old-age insurance; Joined Cases C-502/01 and 31/02, Gaumain-Cerri and Barth[2004] ECR I-6483, payment of old-age contributions for care givers dependent on where the care recipient is domiciled.
182. cf further Case C-403/03, Schempp[2005] ECR I-6421, tax deductibility of maintenance payments to former spouse residing in another Member State; Case C-520/04, Turpeinen[2006] ECR I-10685, higher rate of tax for retired persons residing in another Member State.
183. cf in this respect ECJ, Case C-224/02, Pusa[2004] ECR I-5763, consideration to be given to income tax paid while domiciled abroad when proceeding with attachment measures at home.
184. cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 293 et seq.
185. cf in this respect ECJ, Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161, paras 25 et seq; Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957, paras 128 et seq; Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849, paras 89 et seq; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993, paras 31 et seq; Case C-221/07, Zablocka-Weyhermüller[2008] ECR I-9029, paras 34 et seq.
186. ECJ, Case C-378/97, Wijsenbeek[1999] ECR I-6207.
187. ECJ, Case C-200/02, Chen/Zhu[2004] ECR I-9925.
188. ECJ, Case C-524/06, Huber[2008] ECR I-9705, paras 54 et seq.
189. ECJ, Case C-353/06, Grunkin and Paul[2008] ECR I-7639.
190. Already as early as 1993: N. Dautzenberg, 'Der Vertrag von Maastricht, das neue Grundrecht auf allgemeine Freizügigkeit und die beschränkte Steuerpflicht der natürlichen Person', (1993) Betriebsberater 1565; cf further K. Füßer, 'Grundrecht auf wirtschaftliche Freizügigkeit und Art. 8a EGV als Auffangbeschränkungsverbot des Gemeinschaftsrechts', (1999) Die Öffentliche Verwaltung 96, at 97 and 100 et seq
191. G. Schulz, Freizügigkeit für Unionsbürger (Lang, 1997), at 95
192. M. Zuleeg, 'Die Einwirkung des Europäischen Gemeinschaftsrechts auf die deutsche Pflegeversicherung', (1997) Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt 445, at 448.
193. cf von Bogdandy and Bitter, op cit n 6 supra, at 320 et seq; Dougan, op cit n 6 supra, at 980 et seq; Jacobs, op cit n 6 supra, at 597; Kokott, op cit n 6 supra, at 224 et seq; Spaventa, op cit n 6 supra, at 23; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 297 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 86 supra, § 15, para 42.
194. Opinion of AG Kokott, in ECJ, Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451, para 50; AG Kokott, Case C-470/04, N[2006] ECR I-7409, para 65. Cf further AG Jacobs, in Case C-224/02, Pusa[2004] ECR I-5763, para 22; Jacobs, op cit n 6 supra, at 597.
195. A step in this direction is discernible in the parallelisation of Art 21 TFEU with the market freedoms in ECJ, Case C-152/05, EC v Germany[2008] ECR I-39, para 30 in conjunction with para 22; cf M. Herdegen, Europarecht (Beck, 11th edn, 2009), § 13, para 11.
196. The potential scope of Art 21 TFEU is stressed by S. Bode, 'Annotation to Case C-224/98-D'Hoop', (2002) Europäische Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht 637, at 638; Toner, op cit n 41 supra, at 299 et seq. Cf also Spaventa, op cit n 43 supra, at 765: 'The Community right then becomes akin to the claim that, in national contemporary liberal democracies, citizens have against their own State not to be unjustly limited in their freedom, be this freedom economic or of another kind'.
197. Such an interpretation of Art 21 TFEU is, however, advocated by Bode, op cit n 113 supra, at 216 et seq, the Belgian government (in ECJ, Case C-148/02, Avello[2003] ECR I-11613; cf in this respect the opinion of AG Jacobs, para 41) and the Dutch government (in ECJ, Case C-364/01, Barbier[2003] ECR I-15013, para 52).
198. cf also ECJ, Case C-127/08, Metock[2008] ECR I-6241, para 68.
199. cf in this respect AG Stix-Hackl, in ECJ, Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849, and Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957, paras 2 et seq.
200. cf also for alternative formulas: Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 303 et seq. An alternative combination of these criteria is also advocated by Toner, op cit n 41 supra, at 297, cf also at 283 et seq: 'Any measure which has direct or substantial (possibly exclusionary) effect is incompatible with the Treaty unless objectively justified by imperative reasons of public interest'. Cf, however, R. Domröse and P. Kubicki, 'Die unionsbürgerliche Freizügigkeit und der Zugang zu sozialen Leistungen des Herkunftsstaates', (2008) Europarecht 873, at 881 et seq, who advocate a more restrictive reading of Art 21 TFEU.
201. ECJ, Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161, para 32. Similarly Case C-299/95, Kremzow[1997] ECR I-2629, para 16, in which the ECJ designated the relation between the exercise of the right to free movement and detention as too hypothetical for this deprivation of liberty to be considered an obstacle to Art. 21 TFEU.
202. cf for an application of this criterion ECJ, Case C-353/06, Grunkin and Paul[2008] ECR I-7639, para 29.
203. ECJ, Case C-55/94, Gebhard[1995] ECR I-4165, para 37. Cf in the context of Art 18 EC, Case C-406/04, De Cuyper [2006] ECR I-6947, para 39; Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451, para 33; Case C-520/04, Turpeinen[2006] ECR I-10685, para 32; Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957, para 133; Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849, para 94; Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161, para 33; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993, para 34; Case C-353/06, Grunkin and Paul[2008] ECR I-7639, para 29; Case C-221/07, Zablocka-Weyhermüller[2008] ECR I-9029, para 37.
204. cf ECJ, Case C-318/05, EC v Germany[2007] ECR I-6957, paras 134 et seq; Case C-76/05, Schwarz[2007] ECR I-6849, paras 95 et seq; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993, paras 35 et seq; Case C-221/07, Zablocka-Weyhermüller[2008] ECR I-9029, paras 38 et seq; Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 308; F. Wollenschläger, 'Annotation to ECJ, Case C-406/04-De Cuyper', (2006) Europäische Zeitschrift für Wirtschaftsrecht 503, at 504 et seq; cf further AG Geelhoed, in ECJ, Case C-212/05, Hartmann[2007] ECR I-6303, paras 62 et seq, in the context of child raising allowances.
205. ECJ, Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451, para 36; Case C-499/06, Nerkowska[2008] ECR I-3993, para 38.
206. To establish connectivity, the ECJ further refers to the 'aims pursued by Article 3(1)(q) EC and the second indent of Article 149(2) EC, namely, inter alia, encouraging mobility of students and teachers'; cf Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161, para 27.
207. cf ECJ, Case C-192/05, Tas-Hagen[2006] ECR I-10451, paras 34 et seq. See for an detailed analysis Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 307 et seq and 346 et seq.
208. ECJ, Joined Cases C-11 and 12/06, Morgan and Bucher[2007] ECR I-9161, para 33.
209. cf L. Daniele, 'Non-Discriminatory Restrictions to the Free Movement of Persons', (1997) 22 European Law Review 191
210. P. Oliver, 'Les quatre libertés et les droits fondamentaux', in Essays in Honour of Louis, Vol I (Editions Université Bruxelles, 2003), 355.
211. A. von Bogdandy, 'Grundrechtsgemeinschaft als Integrationsziel?', (2001) Juristenzeitung 157, at 170. H. Dreier, 'Vorb', in H. Dreier (ed), Grundgesetz. Kommentar (Mohr Siebeck, 2nd edn, 2004), para 49. Cf further J. Gebauer, Die Grundfreiheiten des EG-Vertrags als Gemeinschaftsgrundrechte (Duncker & Humblot, 2004), at 218; Spaventa, op cit n 43 supra, at 768 et seq.
212. cf W. Hoffmann-Riem, 'Kohärenz der Anwendung europäischer und nationaler Grundrechte', (2002) Europäische Grundrechte Zeitschrift 473, at 480.
213. Davies, op cit n 42 supra, at 189. Cf further B. Wilkinson, 'Towards European Citizenship?', (1995) 1 European Public Law 417, at 436.
214. cf in more detail Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 358 et seq.
215. This distinction has to be separated from the discourse on the quality of fundamental freedoms as fundamental rights, which is questioned on grounds of their instrumental character (cf in this regard C. Kombos, 'Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Freedoms', (2006) 12 European Public Law 433, at 435; dissenting O. Due and C. Gulmann, 'Community Fundamental Rights as Part of National Law', in Essays in Honour of Mancini, Vol II (Giuffrè, 1998), 405, at 407 et seq). Cf for an extensive account of this debate Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 368 et seq.
216. cf for its controversial qualification Wollenschläger, ibid, at 370 et seq; further Calliess, op cit n 6 supra, at 23 et seq.
217. cf further K. Mortelmans, 'Book Review', (2003) 40 Common Market Law Review 771, at 776 et seq: 'recent judgments indicate that a new dimension of the Single Market is under construction. This dimension goes back to the basics of European Integration: free movement of persons in order to create a peaceful world. The late European Coal and Steel Treaty gave legal "Authority" to a friendly invasion of miners and their families. The European Treaties, since Amsterdam and Nice, give citizens of Europe and their families a right to stay in what is still a land of Cockaigne'. According to AG Mazák, in ECJ, Case C-158/07, Förster[2008] ECR I-8507, para 54, it is 'fair to say that the concept of Union citizenship, as developed by the case-law of the Court, marks a process of emancipation of Community rights from their economic paradigm'.
218. Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 376.
219. W. Hallstein, Der Schuman-Plan (Klostermann, 1951), at 18: 'Gedanken einer gemeinsamen europäischen-fast hätte ich gesagt-"Staats"angehörigkeit in einer besonderen Ausprägung'.
220. Speech published in EC-Bulletin 11/1968, 5, at 6. Cf further U. Everling, Das Niederlassungsrecht im Gemeinsamen Markt (Berlin, 1963), 3, who qualified the principle of non-discrimination as the nucleus of a citizen's right of equal treatment. Cf for subsequent interpretations in this direction W. Maas, 'The Genesis of European Rights', (2005) 43 Journal Of Common Market Studies 1009, at 1009 et seq and 1021 et seq; M.P. Maduro, 'Europe's Social Self', in J. Shaw (ed), Social Law and Policy in an Evolving European Union (Hart, 2000), 325, at 332; Plender, op cit n 77 supra.
221. cf Ipsen and Nicolaysen, op cit n 12 supra, at 340, n 2; further Ipsen, op cit n 12 supra, at 250 et seq, 715 et seq and 752 et seq. According to Ipsen, ibid, at 250 et seq, market citizenship does not lay the foundation for a 'Community-status' complementing national citizenship.
222. cf for an detailed analysis of the emergence of a European citizenship Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 313 et seq.
223. M. Sica, Verso la cittadinanza europea (Le Monnier, 1979), at 1.
224. cf with regard to the consequences of the Treaty of Lisbon, H. de Waele, 'EU Citizenship: Revisiting its Meaning, Place and Potential', (2010) 12 European Journal of Migration and Law 319.
225. cf Pernice, op cit n 91 supra, at 187.
226. cf Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 335 et seq Cf further AG Villalon, in Cases C-47/08 EC v Belgium et al (pending), para 138: 'A nationality clause which affects natural persons and which is introduced under the alleged cover afforded by the negative scope of the freedom of establishment must be categorised first and foremost as a measure affecting citizenship status, in so far as it uses the criterion for the attribution of European citizenship, that is to say the nationality of the State, as a ground for preventing access to activities which are connected with the exercise of official authority within the meaning of the first paragraph of Article 45 EC. However, only in very defined circumstances, which, as we shall see, do not arise in this case, will the Treaties allow the basis for establishing European citizenship to be used as a ground for derogating from a right intimately connected with status as a European Union citizen. In so far as it has a transnational dimension, European citizenship is founded on the existence of a community of States and individuals who share a scale of values, a high degree of mutual trust and a commitment to solidarity. Given that, on being awarded the nationality of a Member State, an individual is introduced into that community of values, trust and solidarity, it would be paradoxical if membership of that very community were to constitute the ground for preventing a European Union citizen from exercising the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Treaty'.
227. cf for a similar non-unitarian understanding Kostakopoulou, 'Nested "Old" and "New" Citizenship', op cit n 3 supra, at 396, who describes the relationship of Union and national citizenships as one 'of ambivalence whereby each element relates back to and passes into the other' (cf also ibid, at 405: 'reciprocally constitutive'). Kostakopoulou, however, rejects the concept of 'complementarity' because it would suggest a relationship 'in which the complement as a super-added element is neutral to and different from what it complements' (cf also Kostakopoulou, Citizenship, op cit n 3 supra, at 69, and T. Faist's model of a 'nested social membership', (2001) 39 Journal of Common Market Studies 37, at 46 et seq). Non-unitarian conceptualisations of Union citizenship are also federal models, cf notably Schönberger, op cit n 6 supra, C. Schönberger, 'European Citizenship as Federal Citizenship', (2007) 19 European Public Law Review 61.
228. cf in this respect ECJ, Case C-369/90, Micheletti[1992] ECR I-4239, paras 10 et seq; Case C-148/02, Avello[2003] ECR I-1161, paras 26 et seq; Case C-200/02, Chen/Zhu[2004] ECR I-9925, paras 36 et seq; Case C-135/08, Rottmann (unreported), paras 36 et seq; T. Konstadinides, 'La Fraternité Européenne? The Extent of National Competence to Condition the Acquisition and Loss of Nationality from the Perspective of EU Citizenship', (2010) 35 European Law Review 401.
229. P.M. Huber, 'Europäisches und nationales Verfassungsrecht', (2001) 60 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung der Deutschen Staatsrechtslehrer 194, at 208. Cf further C. Hillgruber, 'Der Nationalstaat in der überstaatlichen Verflechtung', in J. Isensee and P. Kirchhof (eds), Handbuch des Staatsrechts der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Vol 2 (C.F. Müller, 3rd edn, 2004), § 32, para 96.
230. I. Pernice, 'Europäisches und nationales Verfassungsrecht', (2001) 60 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung Deutscher Staatsrechtslehrer 148, at 163 et seq. Cf further I. Pernice, 'Multilevel Constitutionalism in the European Union', (2002) 27 European Law Review 511.
231. Huber, op cit n 195 supra, at 210.
232. ibid, at 214. Cf further Hillgruber, op cit n 195 supra, para 96.
233. cf Kokott, op cit n 6 supra, at 213; BVerfGE 113, 273 (298)-European Arrest Warrant: 'Notwithstanding its importance in other respects , the citizenship of the Union is a derived status which complements national citizenship'. Cf further Calliess, op cit n 6 supra, at 15 et seq. This conceptualisation of national and Union citizenship as complementary affiliations has been developed in the author's article: 'Vernetzte Angehörigkeiten', op cit n 6 supra, at 120 et seq. Cf further Calliess, op cit n 6 supra, at 15 et seq.
234. Calliess, ibid, at 9 et seq.
235. Wollenschläger, op cit n 2 supra, at 91 et seq and 319 et seq.
236. In this direction, see S. Leclerc, 'Les Droits du Citoyen Européen. De Rome à Maastricht', in S. Leclerc and J.-F. Akandi-Kombé (eds), La Citoyenneté Européenne (Bruylant, 2006), 51, at 75 et seq.