Menopause and mental well-being: Timing of symptoms and timing of hormone treatment

Women's Health

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 71-80

  Pluchino, Nicola ^a   Bucci, Fiorella ^a   Cela, Vito ^a   Cubeddu, Alessandra ^a   Genazzani, Andrea Riccardo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

Author keywords

brain; cognition; HRT; menopause; mood disorders; neurotransmitters; sex steroids

Indexed keywords

3ALPHA HYDROXY 5ALPHA PREGNAN 20 ONE; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID A RECEPTOR; CHOLINE ACETYLTRANSFERASE; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN PLUS MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE; DOPAMINE; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN; NORADRENALIN; PRASTERONE; PROGESTERONE; PROGESTERONE RECEPTOR; PROGESTERONE RECEPTOR A; PROGESTERONE RECEPTOR B; PROGESTERONE RECEPTOR MEMBRANE COMPONENT 1; SEROTONIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CELL SURVIVAL; CELLULAR STRESS RESPONSE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONCENTRATION LOSS; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG MECHANISM; EARLY INTERVENTION; ENZYME ACTIVATION; ESTROGEN THERAPY; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; HORMONE ACTION; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; MENOPAUSAL SYNDROME; MENTAL DETERIORATION; NERVE CELL EXCITABILITY; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPROTECTION; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL BEING; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

AFFECT; AGE FACTORS; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY; ESTROGENS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MENOPAUSE; MENTAL PROCESSES; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 78650645394     PISSN: 17455057     EISSN: 17455065     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2217/whe.10.80     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Genazzani AR, Bernardi F, Pluchino N et al.: Endocrinology of menopausal transition and its brain implications. CNS Spectr. 10(6), 449-457 (2005).
2. Genazzani AR, Gambacciani M, Simoncini T, Schneider HPG: Controversial Issues in Climacteric Medicine Series 3rd HRT in Climacteric and Aging Brain. Maturitas 46(1), 7-26 (2003).
3. McEwen BS, Alves SE, Bulloch K, Weiland NG: Ovarian steroids and the brain: Implications for cognition and aging. Neurology 48(5 Suppl. 7), 8-15 (1997).
4. Turgeon JL, Carr MC, Maki PM, Mendelsohn ME, Wise PM: Complex actions of sex steroids in adipose tissue, the cardiovascular system, and brain: Insights from basic science and clinical studies. Endocr. Rev. 27(6), 575-605 (2006).
5. Sherwin BB: Estrogen and Cognitive Functioning in Women. Endocr. Rev. 24(2), 133-151 (2003).
6. Genazzani AR, Pluchino N, Luisi S, Luisi M: Estrogen, cognition and female ageing. Hum. Reprod. Update. 13(2), 175-187 (2007).
7. Emerson CS, Headrick JP, Vink R: Estrogen improves biochemical and neurologic outcome following traumatic brain injury in male rats, but not in females. Brain. Res. 608(1), 95-100 (1993).
8. Saiyed M, Riker WK: Cholinergic and anticholinergic drug effects on survival during hypoxia: significant gender differences. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 264(3), 1146-1153 (1993).
9. Nishikawa T, Kirsch JR, Koehler RC, Miyabe M, Traystman RJ: Competitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor blockade reduces brain injury following transient focal ischemia in cats. Stroke 25(11), 2258-2264 (1994). (Pubitemid 24338385)
10. Pike CJ: Estrogen modulates neuronal Bcl-xL expression and b-amyloid-induced apoptosis: relevance to Alzheimers disease. J. Neurochem. 72(4), 1552-1563 (1999).
11. Dubal DB, Kashon ML, Pettigrew LC et al.: Estradiol protects against ischemic injury. J. Cereb. Blood. Flow. Metab. 18(11), 1253-1258 (1998).
12. Rusa R, Alkayed NJ, Crain BJ et al.: 17b-Estradiol reduces stroke injury in estrogen-deficient female animals. Stroke. 30(8), 1665-1670 (1999).
13. Simpkins JW, Rajakumar G, Zhang YQ et al.: Estrogens may reduce mortality and ischemic damage caused by middle cerebral artery occlusion in the female rat. J. Neurosurg. 87(5), 724-730 (1997).
14. Hall ED, Pazara KE, Linseman KL: Sex differences in postischemic neuronal necrosis in gerbils. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 11(2), 292-298 (1991).
15. Zhang YQ, Shi J, Rajakumar G, Day AL, Simpkins JW: Effects of gender and estradiol treatment on focal brain ischemia. Brain. Res. 784(1-2), 321-324 (1998).
16. Wang Q, Santizo R, Baughman VL, Pelligrino DA, Iadecola C: Estrogen provides neuroprotection in transient forebrain ischemia through perfusion-independent mechanisms in rats. Stroke 30(3), 630-637 (1999).
17. Green PS, Gridley KE, Simpkins JW: Estradiol protects against ß-amyloid (25-35)-induced toxicity in SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells. Neurosci. Lett. 218(3), 165-168 (1996).
18. Xu H, Gouras GK, Greenfield JP et al.: Estrogen reduces neuronal generation of Alzheimer ß-amyloid peptides. Nat. Med. 4(4), 447-445 (1998).
19. Fader AJ, Hendricson AW, Dohanich GP: Estrogen improves performance of reinforced t-maze alternation and prevents the amnestic effects of scopolamine administered systemically or intrahippocampally. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 69(3), 225-240 (1998).
20. Sherwin BB: Estrogen effects on cognition in menopausal women. Neurology 48(5 Suppl. 7), S21-S26 (1997).
21. Alonso-Soleis R, Abreu P, Leopez-Coviella I, et al.: Gonadal steroid modulation of neuroendocrine transduction: a transynaptic view. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol. 16(3), 357-382 (1996).
22. Gruber CJ, Tschugguel W, Schneeberger C, Huber JC: Production and actions of estrogens. N. Engl. J. Med. 346(5), 340-352 (2002).
23. Falkenstein E, Wehling M: Nongenomically initiated steroid actions. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 30(Suppl. 3), 51-54 (2000).
24. Brinton RD: Cellular and molecular mechanisms of estrogen regulation of memory function and neuroprotection against Alzheimers disease: recent insights and remaining challenges. Learn. Mem. 8(3), 121-133 (2001).
25. Kelly MJ, Levin ER: Rapid actions of plasma membrane estrogen receptors. Trends. Endocrinol. Metab. 12(4), 152-156 (2001).
26. Kelly MJ, Wagner EJ: Estrogen modulation of G-protein-coupled receptors. Trends. Endocrinol. Metab. 10, 369-374 (1999).
27. Lee SJ, McEwen BS: Neurotrophic and neuroprotective actions of estrogens and their therapeutic implications. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 41, 569-591 (2001).
28. McEwen BS, Alves SH: Estrogen actions in the central nervous system. Endocr. Rev. 20, 279-307 (1999).
29. Phillips SM, Sherwin BB: Effects of estrogen on memory function in surgically menopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 17, 485-495 (1992).
30. Luine VN, Rhodes JC: Gonadal hormone regulation of MAO and other enzymes in hypothalamic areas. Neuroendocrinology 36, 235-241 (1983).
31. Studd JWW, Smith RNJ: Estrogen and depression in women. Menopause 1, 33-37 (1994).
32. Pecins-Thompson M, Brown NA, Kohama SG, Bethea CL: Ovarian steroid regulation of tryptophan hydroxylase mRNA expression in rhesus macaques. J. Neurosci. 16, 7021-7029 (1996).
33. Fink G, Sumner BE: Oestrogen and mental state. Nature 383, 306 (1996)
34. Summer BE, Fink G: Estrogen increases the density of 5- ydroxytryptamine(2A) receptors in cerebral cortex and nucleus accumbens in the female rat. J. Steroid. Biachem. MoI. Biol. 54, 15-20 (1995).
35. Decker MW: The effects of aging on hippocampal and cortical projections of the forebrain cholinergic system. Brain. Res. Rev. 12, 423-435 (1987).
36. Toran-Allerand CD: The estrogen/ neurotrophin connection during neural development: is co-localization of estrogen receptors with the neurotrophins and their receptors biologically relevant? Dev. Neurosci. 18, 36-48 (1996).
37. McMillan PJ, Singer CA, Dorsa DM: The effects of ovariectomy and estrogen replacement on trkA and choline acetyltransferase mRNA expression in the basal forebrain of the adult female Sprague-Dawley. rat. J. Neurosci. 16, 1860-1865 (1996).
38. Luine V, Park D, Joh T, Reis D, McEwen B: Immunochemical demonstration of increased choline acetyltransferase concentration in rat preoptic area after estradiol administration. Brain. Res. 191, 273-277 (1980).
39. Kuhl DE, Koeppe RA, Minoshima S: In vivo mapping of cerebral acetylcholinesterase activity in aging and Alzheimers disease. Neurology. 52, 691-699 (1999).
40. Pluchino N, Luisi M, Lenzi E et al.: Progesterone and progestins: effects on brain, allopregnanolone and b-endorphin. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 102(1-5), 205-213 (2006).
41. Mani S: Progestins receptor subtypes in the brain: the knownand the unknown. Endocrinology 149(6), 2750-2756 (2008).
42. Krebs CJ, Jarvis ED, Chan J, Lydon JP, Ogawa S, Pfaff DW: A membrane- associated progesterone-binding protein, 25-Dx, is regulated by progesterone in brain regions involved in female reproductive behavior. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 12816-12821 (2000).
43. Labombarda F, Gonzalez SL, Deniselle MC et al.: Effects of injury and progesterone treatment on progesterone receptor and progesterone binding protein 25-Dx expression in the rat spinal cord. J. Neurochem. 87, 902-913 (2003).
44. Lena C, Changeux JP: Allosteric modulations of the nicotinic acetyl-choline receptor. Trends. Neurosci. 16, 181-186 (1993).
45. Schumacher M, Weill-Engerer S, Liere P et al.: Steroid hormones and neurosteroids in normal and pathological aging of the nervous system. Prog. Neurobiol. 71(1), 3-29 (2003).
46. Gonzalez Deniselle MC, López-Costa JJ, Saavedra JP et al.: Progesterone neuroprotection in the Wobbler mouse, a genetic model of spinal cord motor neuron disease. Neurobiol. Dis. 11(3), 457-468 (2002).
47. Yu WH: Survival of motoneurons following axotomy is enhanced by lactation or by progesterone treatment. Brain. Res. 491, 379-382 (1989).
48. Stein DG: Brain damage, sex hormones and recovery: a new role for progesterone and estrogen? Trends. Neurosci. 24(7), 386-391 (2001).
49. Roof RL, Hoffman SW, Stein DG: Progesterone protects against lipid peroxidation following traumatic brain injury in rats. Mol. Chem. Neuropathol. 31(1), 1-11 (1997).
50. Roof RL, Duvdevani R, Braswell L, Stein DG: Progesterone facilitates cognitive recovery and reduces secondary neuronal loss caused by cortical contusion injury in male rats. Exp.Neurol. 129, 64-69 (1994).
51. Thomas AJ, Nockels RP, Pan HQ, Shaffrey CI, Chopp M: Progesterone is neuroprotective after acute experimental spinal cord trauma in rats. Spine 24(20), 2134-2138 (1999).
52. Jiang N, Chopp M, Stein D, Feit H: Progesterone is neuroprotective after transient middle cerebral artery occlusion in male rats. Brain. Res. 735(1), 101-107 (1996). (Pubitemid 26336624)
53. Schumacher M, Sitruk-Ware R, De Nicola AF: Progesterone and progestins: neuroprotection and myelin repair. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 8(6), 740-746 (2008).
54. Alkayed NJ, Goto S, Sugo N: Bcl-2: gene induction and effect of transgene in experimental stroke. J. Neurosci. 21, 7543-7550 (2001).
55. Irwin RW, Yao J, Hamilton RT, Cadenas E, Brinton RD, Nilsen J: Progesterone and estrogen regulate oxidativemetabolism in brain mitochondria. Endocrinology. 149, 167-175 (2008).
56. Pettus EH, Wright DW, Stein DG, Hoffman SW: Progesterone treatment inhibits the inflammatory agents that accompany traumatic brain injury. Brain Res. 1049, 112-119 (2005).
57. Gonzalez SL, Labombarda F, Deniselle MC et al.: Progesterone neuroprotection in spinal cord traumainvolves up-regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in motoneurons. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 94, 143-149 (2005).
58. Begliuomini S, Casarosa E, Pluchino N et al.: Influence of endogenous and exogenous sex hormones on plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Hum. Rep. 4, 995-1002 (2006).
59. Wang MD, Wahlström G, Bäckström T: The regional brain distribution of the neurosteroids pregnenolone and pregnenolone sulfate following intravenous infusion. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 62, 299-306 (1997).
60. Stoffel-Wagner B, Watzka M, Schramm J, Bidlingmaier F, Klingmüller D: Expression of CYP19 (aromatase) mRNA in different areas of the human brain. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 70, 237-241 (1999).
61. Baulieu EE: Neurosteroids of the nervous system, by the nervous system, for the nervous system. Recent. Prog. Horm. Res. 52, 1-32 (1997).
62. Wolf OT, Neumenm O, Helhammer DH: Effects of a two-week physiological dehydroepiandrosterone substitution on cognitive performance and well-being in healthy elderly women and men. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82, 2363-2367 (1997).
63. Schumacher M, Coirini H, McEwen BS: Regulation of high affinity GABAA receptors in the dorsal hippocampus by estradiol and progesterone. Brain Res. 487, 178-184 (1989).
64. Bromberger JT, Meyer PM, Kravitz HM et al.: Psychologic distress and natural menopause: a multiethnic community study. Am. J. Public. Health. 91, 1435-1442 (2001).
65. North American Menopause Society: Menopause Guidebook (6th Ed.). North American Menopause Society, Cleveland, OH, USA (2006).
66. Gallicchio L, Schilling C, Miller SR, Zacur H, Flaws JF: Correlates of depressive symptoms among women undergoing the menopausal transition. J. Psychosom. Res. 63, 263-268 (2007)
67. Moline ML, Broch L, Zak RZ: Sleep in women across the life cycle from adulthood through menopause. Med. Clin. N. Am. 88, 705-736 (2004).
68. McKinley JB, McKinley SM, Brambilla D: The relative contributions of endocrine changes and social circumstances to depression in mid-aged women. J. Health. Soc. Behav. 28, 345-363 (1987).
69. Avis NE, Stellato R, Crawford S et al.: Is there a menopausal syndrome? Menopausal status and symptoms across racial/ethnic groups. Soc. Sci. Med. 52, 345-356 (2001).
70. Bromberger JT, Assmann SF, Avis NE, Schocken M, Kravitz HM, Cordal A: Persistent mood symptoms in a multiethnic community cohort of pre- and perimenopausal women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 15, 347-356 (2003).
71. Schmidt PJ, Haq N, Rubinow DR: A longitudinal evaluation of the relationship between reproductive status and mood in perimenopausal women. Am. J. Psychiatry. 161, 2238-2244 (2004).
72. WHO: The global burden of disease. A comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020 Murray CJL, Lopez AD (Eds). Harvard School of Public Health, Cambridge, MA, USA (1996).
73. Richards M, Rubinow D, Daly R, Schmidt P: Premenstrual symptoms and perimenopausal depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 163(1), 133-137 (2006).
74. Bromberger JT, Matthews KA: A longitudinal study of the effects of pessimism, trait anxiety, and life stress on depressive symptoms in middle-aged women. Psychol. Aging 11(2), 207-213 (1996).
75. Avis NE, Brambilla D, McKinlay SM, Vass K: A longitudinal analysis of the association between menopause and depression. Results from the Massachusetts Womens Health Study. Ann. Epidemiol. 4(3), 214-220 (1994).
76. Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Grisso JA et al.: Hot flashes in the late reproductive years: risk factors for Africa American and Caucasian women. J. Womens. Health Gend. Based Med. 10(1), 67-76 (2001).
77. Brown JP, Gallicchio L, Flaws JA, Tracy JK: Relations among menopausal symptoms, sleep disturbance and depressive symptoms in midlife. Maturitas 62(2) 184-189 (2009).
78. Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Lin H et al.: Symptoms associated with menopausal transition and reproductive hormones in midlife women. Obstet. Gynecol. 110(2 Pt 1), 230-240 (2007).
79. Rocca WA, Shuster LT, Grossardt BR et al.: Long-term effects of bilateral oophorectomy on brain aging: unanswered questions from the Mayo Clinic Cohort Study of Oophorectomy and Aging. Womens Health 5(1), 39-48 (2009).
80. Morgan ML, Cook IA, Rapkin AJ, Leuchter AF: Neurophysiologic changes during estrogen augmentation in perimenopausal depression. Maturitas 56(1), 54-60 (2007).
81. Bernardi F, Pieri M, Stomati M et al.: Effect of different hormonal replacement therapies on circulating allopregnanolone and dehydroepiandrosterone levels in postmenopausal women. Gynecol. Endocrinol. 17(1), 65-77 (2003).
82. Rocca WA, Bower JH, Maraganore DM et al.: Increased risk of cognitive impairment or dementia in women who underwent oophorectomy before menopause. Neurology 69, 1074-1083 (2007).
83. Rocca WA, Bower JH, Maraganore DM et al.: Increased risk of parkinsonism in women who underwent oophorectomy before menopause. Neurology 70(3), 200-209 (2008).
84. Gold EB, Sternfeld B, Kelsey JL et al.: Relation of demographic and lifestyle factors to symptoms in a multi-racial/ethnic population of women 40-55 years of age. Am. J. Epidemiol. 152(5), 463-473 (2000).
85. Woods NF, Mitchell ES, Adams C: Memory functioning among midlife women: observations from the Seattle Midlife Womens Health Study Menopause 7, 257-265 (2000).
86. Maki PM, Drogos LL, Rubin LH, Banuvar S, Shulman LP, Geller SE: Objective hot flashes are negatively related to verbal memory performance in midlife women. Menopause 15, 848-856 (2008).
87. LeBlanc ES, Janowsky J, Chan BK, Nelson HD: Hormone replacement therapy and cognition: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 285(11), 1489-1499 (2001).
88. Morrison JH, Brinton RD, Schmidt PJ, Gore AC: Estrogen, menopause, and the aging brain: how basic neuroscience can inform hormone therapy in women. J. Neurosci. 26(41), 10332-10348 (2006).
89. Siegfried T: Neuroscience: its all in the timing. Nature 445(7126), 359-361 (2007).
90. Tang MX, Jacobs D, Stern Y et al.: Effect of oestrogen during menopause on risk and age at onset of Alzheimers disease. Lancet 348, 429-432 (1996).
91. Kawas C, Resnick S, Morrison A et al.: A prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and the risk of developing Alzheimers disease: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Neurology 48(6), 1517-1521 (1997).
92. Baldereschi M, Di Carlo A, Lepore V et al.: Estrogen-replacement therapy and Alzheimers disease in the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging. Neurology 50(4), 996-1002 (1998).
93. Zandi PP, Carlson MC, Plassman BL et al.: Hormone replacement therapy and incidence of Alzheimer disease in older women: the Cache County Study.; Cache County Memory Study Investigators. JAMA 288, 2123-2129 (2002).
94. Shumaker SA, Legault C, Rapp SR et al.: WHIMS Investigators Estrogen plus progestin and the incidence of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: the Womens Health Initiative Memory Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289, 2651-2662 (2003).
95. Rapp SR, Espeland MA, Shumaker SA et al.: WHIMS Investigators. Effect of estrogen plus progestin on global cognitive function in postmenopausal women: the Womens Health Initiative Memory Study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289, 2663-2672 (2003).
96. Shumaker SA, Legault C, Kuller L et al.; Womens Health Initiative Memory Study: Conjugated equine estrogens and incidence of probable dementia and mild cognitive impairment in postmenopausal women: Womens Health Initiative Memory Study. JAMA 291, 2947-2958 (2004).
97. Espeland MA, Rapp SR, Shumaker SA et al.; Womens Health Initiative Memory Study: Conjugated equine estrogens and global cognitive function in postmenopausal women: Womens Health Initiative Memory Study. JAMA 291, 2959-2968 (2004).
98. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Hendrix SL, Limacher M et al.; WHI Investigators: Effect of estrogen plus progestin on stroke in postmenopausal women: the Womens Health Initiative: a randomized trial. JAMA 289, 2673-2684 (2003).
99. Nilsen J, Brinton RD: Divergent impact of progesterone and medroxyprogesterone acetate (Provera) on nuclear mitogenactivated protein kinase signaling. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 10506-10511 (2003).
100. Sherwin BB: Estrogen therapy: is time of initiation critical for neuroprotection? Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 5, 620-627 (2009).
101. Maki PM: A systematic review of clinical trials of hormone therapy on cognitive function: effects of age at initiation and progestin use. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1052, 182-197 (2005).