Antimicrobial Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Issues in the Critically Ill with Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock

Critical Care Clinics

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 19-34

  Varghese, Julie M ^a   Roberts, Jason A ^a,b   Lipman, Jeffrey ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b ROYAL BRISBANE AND WOMEN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

Author keywords

Clearance; Pharmacodynamics; Pharmacokinetics; Renal failure; Renal replacement therapy; Volume of distribution

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CARBAPENEM; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLINDAMYCIN; CREATININE; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; ENDOTOXIN; ERTAPENEM; EXOTOXIN; FLUCLOXACILLIN; GENTAMICIN; LINCOMYCIN; LINCOSAMIDE; LINEZOLID; MACROLIDE; OROSOMUCOID; PIPERACILLIN; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; TEICOPLANIN; TIGECYCLINE; TOBRAMYCIN; VANCOMYCIN;

AREA UNDER THE CURVE; CREATININE CLEARANCE; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG HALF LIFE; EXTRACORPOREAL OXYGENATION; HEART OUTPUT; HYPOALBUMINEMIA; KIDNEY INJURY; LIVER METABOLISM; MAXIMUM PLASMA CONCENTRATION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; PLASMAPHERESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BINDING; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; TISSUE PERFUSION;

ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; HUMANS; SEPSIS; SHOCK, SEPTIC;

EID: 78649935284     PISSN: 07490704     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccc.2010.09.006     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. Angus D.C., Linde-Zwirble W.T., Lidicker J., et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001, 29(7):1303-1310.
2. Xu J., Kochane K.D., Murphy S.L., et al. Deaths: final data for 2007. National vital statistics report web release 2010, National Centre for Health Statistics, Hyattsville (MD).
3. Kumar A., Roberts D., Wood K.E., et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 2006, 34(6):1589-1596.
4. Garnacho-Montero J., Garcia-Garmendia J.L., Barrero-Almodovar A., et al. Impact of adequate empirical antimicrobial therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit Care Med 2003, 31(12):2742-2751.
5. Bone R.C., Balk R.A., Cerra F.B., et al. Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. The ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Chest 1992, 101(6):1644-1655.
6. Roberts J.A., Lipman J. Antibacterial dosing in intensive care: pharmacokinetics, degree of disease and pharmacodynamics of sepsis. Clin Pharmacokinet 2006, 45(8):755-773.
7. Craig W.A. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 26(1):1-10.
8. Bochud P.Y., Calandra T. Pathogenesis of sepsis: new concepts and implications for future treatment. BMJ 2003, 326:262-266.
9. Opal S.M., Cohen J. Clinical gram-positive sepsis: does it fundamentally differ from gram-negative bacterial sepsis?. Crit Care Med 1999, 27(8):1608-1616.
10. Glauser M.P., Zanetti G., Baumgartner J.D., et al. Septic shock: pathogenesis. Lancet 1991, 338(8769):732-736.
11. Bone R.C. The pathogenesis of sepsis. Ann Intern Med 1991, 115(6):457-469.
12. Joynt G.M., Lipman J., Gomersall C.D., et al. The pharmacokinetics of once-daily dosing of ceftriaxone in critically ill patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001, 47(4):421-429.
13. Lipman J., Wallis S.C., Rickard C.M., et al. Low cefpirome levels during twice daily dosing in critically ill septic patients: pharmacokinetic modelling calls for more frequent dosing. Intensive Care Med 2001, 27(2):363-370.
14. Ryan D.M. Pharmacokinetics of antimicrobials in natural and experimental superficial compartments in animals and humans. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993, 31(Suppl D):1-16.
15. Buerger C., Plock N., Dehghanyar P., et al. Pharmacokinetics of unbound linezolid in plasma and tissue interstitium of critically ill patients after multiple dosing using microdialysis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006, 50(7):2455-2463.
16. Joukhadar C., Frossard M., Mayer B.X., et al. Impaired target site penetration of beta-lactams may account for therapeutic failure in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2001, 29(2):385-391.
17. Joukhadar C., Klein N., Dittrich P., et al. Target site penetration of fosfomycin in critically ill patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003, 51(5):1247-1252.
18. Sauermann R., Delle-Karth G., Marsik C., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cefpirome in subcutaneous adipose tissue of septic patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49(2):650-655.
19. Roberts J.A., Roberts M.S., Robertson T.A., et al. Piperacillin penetration into tissue of critically ill patients with sepsis-bolus versus continuous administration?. Crit Care Med 2009, 37(3):926-933.
20. Fleck A., Raines G., Hawker F., et al. Increased vascular permeability: a major cause of hypoalbuminaemia in disease and injury. Lancet 1985, 1(8432):781-784.
21. Burkhardt O., Kumar V., Katterwe D., et al. Ertapenem in critically ill patients with early-onset ventilator-associated pneumonia: pharmacokinetics with special consideration of free-drug concentration. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007, 59(2):277-284.
22. Pea F., Viale P., Candoni A., et al. Teicoplanin in patients with acute leukaemia and febrile neutropenia: a special population benefiting from higher dosages. Clin Pharmacokinet 2004, 43(6):405-415.
23. Ulldemolins M., Roberts J.A., Wallis S.C., et al. Flucloxacillin dosing in critically ill patients with hypoalbuminaemia: special emphasis on unbound pharmacokinetics. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010, 65(8):1771-1778.
24. Choi G., Gomersall C.D., Tian Q., et al. Principles of antibacterial dosing in continuous renal replacement therapy. Crit Care Med 2009, 37(7):2268-2282.
25. Pea F., Viale P., Pavan F., et al. Pharmacokinetic considerations for antimicrobial therapy in patients receiving renal replacement therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 2007, 46(12):997-1038.
26. Burkhardt O., Hafer C., Langhoff A., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ertapenem in critically ill patients with acute renal failure undergoing extended daily dialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009, 24(1):267-271.
27. Kielstein J.T., Eugbers C., Bode-Boeger S.M., et al. Dosing of daptomycin in intensive care unit patients with acute kidney injury undergoing extended dialysis-a pharmacokinetic study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010, 25(5):1537-1541.
28. Swoboda S., Ober M.C., Lichtenstern C., et al. Pharmacokinetics of linezolid in septic patients with and without extended dialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2010, 66(3):291-298.
29. Mushatt D.M., Mihm L.B., Dreisbach A.W., et al. Antimicrobial dosing in slow extended daily dialysis. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 49(3):433-437.
30. Mehta N.M., Halwick D.R., Dodson B.L., et al. Potential drug sequestration during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: results from an ex vivo experiment. Intensive Care Med 2007, 33(6):1018-1024.
31. Spriet I., Annaert P., Meersseman P., et al. Pharmacokinetics of caspofungin and voriconazole in critically ill patients during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009, 63(4):767-770.
32. Kintzel P.E., Eastlund T., Calis K.A. Extracorporeal removal of antimicrobials during plasmapheresis. J Clin Apher 2003, 18(4):194-205.
33. Fauvelle F., Petitjean O., Tod M., et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics during plasma exchange. Therapie 2000, 55(2):269-275.
34. Roberts J.A., Roberts M.S., Robertson T.A., et al. A novel way to investigate the effects of plasma exchange on antimicrobial levels: use of microdialysis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008, 31(3):240-244.
35. Fauvelle F., Lortholary O., Tod M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ceftriaxone during plasma exchange in polyarteritis nodosa patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994, 38(7):1519-1522.
36. Alet P., Lortholary O., Fauvelle F., et al. Pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin during plasma exchange. Clin Microbiol Infect 1999, 5(4):213-218.
37. McKindley D.S., Hanes S., Boucher B.A. Hepatic drug metabolism in critical illness. Pharmacotherapy 1998, 18(4):759-778.
38. Mann H.J., Townsend R.J., Fuhs D.W., et al. Decreased hepatic clearance of clindamycin in critically ill patients with sepsis. Clin Pharm 1987, 6(2):154-159.
39. McKindley D.S., Boulet J., Sachdeva K., et al. Endotoxic shock alters the pharmacokinetics of lidocaine and monoethylglycinexylidide. Shock 2002, 17(3):199-204.
40. McKinnon P.S., Paladino J.A., Schentag J.J. Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T>MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008, 31(4):345-351.
41. Lipman J., Wallis S.C., Boots R.J. Cefepime versus cefpirome: the importance of creatinine clearance. Anesth Analg 2003, 97(4):1149-1154.
42. Wells M., Lipman J. Measurements of glomerular filtration in the intensive care unit are only a rough guide to renal function. S Afr J Surg 1997, 35(1):20-23.
43. Pong S., Seto W., Abdolell M., et al. 12-hour versus 24-hour creatinine clearance in critically ill pediatric patients. Pediatr Res 2005, 58(1):83-88.
44. Herrera-Gutierrez M.E., Seller-Perez G., Banderas-Bravo E., et al. Replacement of 24-h creatinine clearance by 2-h creatinine clearance in intensive care unit patients: a single-center study. Intensive Care Med 2007, 33(11):1900-1906.
45. Lipman J., Wallis S.C., Rickard C. Low plasma cefepime levels in critically ill septic patients: pharmacokinetic modeling indicates improved troughs with revised dosing. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43(10):2559-2561.
46. Boselli E., Breilh D., Duflo F., et al. Steady-state plasma and intrapulmonary concentrations of cefepime administered in continuous infusion in critically ill patients with severe nosocomial pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2003, 31(8):2102-2106.
47. Burgess D.S., Hastings R.W., Hardin T.C. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cefepime administered by intermittent and continuous infusion. Clin Ther 2000, 22(1):66-75.
48. Georges B., Conil J.M., Cougot P., et al. Cefepime in critically ill patients: continuous infusion versus an intermittent dosing regimen. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005, 43(8):360-369.
49. Roos J.F., Bulitta J., Lipman J., et al. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic rationale for cefepime dosing regimens in intensive care units. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006, 58(5):987-993.
50. Roberts J.A., Kirkpatrick C.M., Roberts M.S., et al. Meropenem dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis and without renal dysfunction: intermittent bolus versus continuous administration? Monte Carlo dosing simulations and subcutaneous tissue distribution. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009, 64(1):142-150.
51. Roos J.F., Lipman J., Kirkpatrick C.M. Population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cefpirome in critically ill patients against Gram-negative bacteria. Intensive Care Med 2007, 33(5):781-788.
52. Kitzes-Cohen R., Farin D., Piva G., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of meropenem in critically ill patients. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2002, 19(2):105-110.
53. Novelli A., Adembri C., Livi P., et al. Pharmacokinetic evaluation of meropenem and imipenem in critically ill patients with sepsis. Clin Pharmacokinet 2005, 44(5):539-549.
54. Jaruratanasirikul S., Sriwiriyajan S., Punyo J. Comparison of the pharmacodynamics of meropenem in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia following administration by 3-hour infusion or bolus injection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49(4):1337-1339.
55. Li C., Kuti J.L., Nightingale C.H., et al. Population pharmacokinetic analysis and dosing regimen optimization of meropenem in adult patients. J Clin Pharmacol 2006, 46(10):1171-1178.
56. Lomaestro B.M., Drusano G.L. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of extending the administration time of meropenem using a Monte Carlo simulation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49(1):461-463.
57. Moore R.D., Lietman P.S., Smith C.R. Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis 1987, 155:93-99.
58. Vogelman B.S., Craig W.A. Postantimicrobial effects. J Antimicrob Chemother 1985, 15(Suppl A):37-46.
59. Beckhouse M.J., Whyte I.M., Byth P.L., et al. Altered aminoglycoside pharmacokinetics in the critically ill. Anaesth Intensive Care 1988, 16(4):418-422.
60. Buijk S.E., Mouton J.W., Gyssens I.C., et al. Experience with a once-daily dosing program of aminoglycosides in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 2002, 28(7):936-942.
61. Triginer C., Izquierdo I., Fernandez R., et al. Gentamicin volume of distribution in critically ill septic patients. Intensive Care Med 1990, 16(5):303-306.
62. Marik P.E. Aminoglycoside volume of distribution and illness severity in critically ill septic patients. Anaesth Intensive Care 1993, 21(2):172-173.
63. Wilson A.P. Clinical pharmacokinetics of teicoplanin. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000, 39(3):167-183.
64. Sanchez A., Lopez-Herce J., Cueto E., et al. Teicoplanin pharmacokinetics in critically ill paediatric patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999, 44(3):407-409.
65. Pea F., Brollo L., Viale P., et al. Teicoplanin therapeutic drug monitoring in critically ill patients: a retrospective study emphasizing the importance of a loading dose. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003, 51(4):971-975.
66. Gous A.G., Dance M.D., Lipman J., et al. Changes in vancomycin pharmacokinetics in critically ill infants. Anaesth Intensive Care 1995, 23(6):678-682.
67. del Mar Fernandez de Gatta Garcia M., Revilla N., Calvo M.V., et al. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic analysis of vancomycin in ICU patients. Intensive Care Med 2007, 33(2):279-285.
68. Llopis-Salvia P., Jimenez-Torres N.V. Population pharmacokinetic parameters of vancomycin in critically ill patients. J Clin Pharm Ther 2006, 31(5):447-454.
69. MacGowan A.P. Pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics, and therapeutic drug monitoring of glycopeptides. Ther Drug Monit 1998, 20(5):473-477.
70. Rybak M.J. The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42(S1):S35-S39.
71. Rybak M.J., Lomaestro B.M., Rotschafer J.C., et al. Vancomycin Therapeutic Guidelines: a summary of consensus recommendations from the infectious diseases Society of America, the American Society of Health System Pharmacists, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 49(3):325-327.
72. Pea F., Furlanut M., Negri C., et al. Prospectively validated dosing nomograms for maximizing the pharmacodynamics of vancomycin administered by continuous infusion in critically ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009, 53(5):1863-1867.
73. Gous A., Lipman J., Scribante J., et al. Fluid shifts have no influence on ciprofloxacin pharmacokinetics in intensive care patients with intra-abdominal sepsis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005, 26(1):50-55.
74. Blaser J., Stone B.B., Groner M.C., et al. Comparative study with enoxacin and netilmicin in a pharmacodynamic model to determine importance of ratio of antimicrobial peak concentration to MIC for bactericidal activity and emergence of resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1987, 31(7):1054-1060.
75. Forrest A., Nix D.E., Ballow C.H., et al. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37(5):1073-1081.
76. Lipman J., Scribante J., Gous A.G., et al. Pharmacokinetic profiles of high-dose intravenous ciprofloxacin in severe sepsis. The Baragwanath Ciprofloxacin Study Group. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42(9):2235-2239.
77. Conil J.M., Georges B., de Lussy A., et al. Ciprofloxacin use in critically ill patients: pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic approaches. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008, 32(6):505-510.
78. van Zanten A.R., Polderman K.H., van Geijlswijk I.M., et al. Ciprofloxacin pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients: a prospective cohort study. J Crit Care 2008, 23(3):422-430.
79. Hyatt J.M., Schentag J.J. Pharmacodynamic modeling of risk factors for ciprofloxacin resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2000, 21(S1):S9-S11.
80. MacGowan A., Rogers C., Bowker K. The use of in vitro pharmacodynamic models of infection to optimize fluoroquinolone dosing regimens. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000, 46(2):163-170.
81. Thomas J.K., Forrest A., Bhavnani S.M., et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42(3):521-527.
82. Craig W.A. Does the dose matter?. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33(S3):S233-S237.
83. Stalker D.J., Jungbluth G.L. Clinical pharmacokinetics of linezolid, a novel oxazolidinone antibacterial. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003, 42(13):1129-1140.
84. Boselli E., Breilh D., Rimmele T., et al. Pharmacokinetics and intrapulmonary concentrations of linezolid administered to critically ill patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med 2005, 33(7):1529-1533.
85. Craig W.A. Basic pharmacodynamics of antibacterials with clinical applications to the use of beta-lactams, glycopeptides, and linezolid. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003, 17(3):479-501.
86. Peterson L.R. A review of tigecycline - the first glycylcycline. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008, 32(S4):S215-S222.
87. Muralidharan G., Micalizzi M., Speth J., et al. Pharmacokinetics of tigecycline after single and multiple doses in healthy subjects. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49(1):220-229.
88. Meagher A.K., Ambrose P.G., Grasela T.H., et al. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profile for tigecycline - a new glycylcycline antimicrobial agent. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2005, 52(3):165-171.
89. Roberts J.A., Kruger P., Paterson D.L., et al. Antimicrobial resistance-what's dosing got to do with it?. Crit Care Med 2008, 36(5):2433-2440.