Current status of the scientific study of the personality disorders: An overview of epidemiological, longitudinal, experimental psychopathology, and neurobehavioral perspectives

Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association

Volumn 58, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 741-778

  Lenzenweger, Mark F ^a  

^a BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EGO DEVELOPMENT; HUMAN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; PERSONALITY DISORDER; PERSONALITY TEST; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT;

HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; PERSONALITY DISORDERS; PREVALENCE;

EID: 78649767943     PISSN: 00030651     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0003065110386111     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Ayduk, O., Zayas, V., Downey, G., Cole, A.B., Shoda, Y., & Mischel, W. (2008). Rejection sensitivity and executive control: Joint predictors of borderline features. Journal of Research in Personality 42:151-168.
2. Barnow, S., Herpertz, S.C., Spitzer, C., Stopsack, M., Preuss, U.W., Grabe, H.J., Kessler, C., & Freyberger, H.J. (2007). Temperament and character in patients with borderline personality disorder taking gender and comorbidity into account. Psychopathology 40:369-378.
3. Block, J. (1995). A contrarian view of the five-factor approach to personality description. Psychological Bulletin 117:187-215.
4. Block, J. (2001). Millenial contrarianism: The five-factor approach to personality description 5 years later. Journal of Research in Personality 35: 98-107.
5. Bradley, R., Conklin, C.Z., & Westen, D. (2005). The borderline personality diagnosis in adolescents: Gender differences and subtypes. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry 46:1006-1019.
6. Clarkin, J.F., Hull, J.W., & Hurt, S.W. (1993). Factor structure of borderline personality disorder criteria. Journal of Personality Disorders 7: 137-143.
7. Clarkin, J.F., Levy, K.N., Lenzenweger, M.F., & Kernberg, O.F. (2007). Evaluating three treatments for borderline personality disorder: A multi-wave study. American Journal of Psychiatry 164:922-928.
8. Clarkin, J.F., Yeomans, F., & Kernberg, O.F. (1999). Psychotherapy of Borderline Personality. New York: Wiley.
9. Cleckley, H. (1964). The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Reinterpret the So-Called Psychopathic Personality. 4th ed. St. Louis: Mosby.
10. Clifton, A., & Pilkonis, P.A. (2007). Evidence for a single latent class of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 48:70-78.
11. Cloninger, C., Svrakic, D., & Przybeck, T. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry 50: 975-990.
12. Coid, J., Yang, M., Tyrer, P., Roberts, A., & Ullrich, S. (2006). Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder among adults aged 16 to 74 in Great Britain. British Journal of Psychiatry 188:423-431.
13. Depue, R.A. (2006). Interpersonal behavior and the structure of personality: Neurobehavioral foundation of agentic extraversion and affiliation. In Biology of Personality and Individual Differences, ed. T. Canli. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 60-92.
14. Depue, R.A., & Collins, P.F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 22:491-569.
15. Depue, R.A., & Lenzenweger, M.F. (2001). A neurobehavioral dimensional model of personality disorders. In The Handbook of Personality Disorders, ed. W.J. Livesley. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 136-176.
16. Depue, R.A., & Lenzenweger, M.F. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of personality disturbance. In Major Theories of Personality Disorder, ed. M.F. Lenzenweger & J.F. Clarkin. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 391-453.
17. Depue, R.A., & Lenzenweger, M.F. (2006a). A multidimensional neurobehavioral model of personality disturbance. In Personality and Psychopathology, ed. R.F. Krueger & J.L. Tackett. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 210-261.
18. Depue, R.A., & Lenzenweger, M.F. (2006b). Toward a developmental psychopathology of personality disturbance: A neurobehavioral dimensional model. In Developmental Psychopathology, ed. D. Cicchetti & D. Cohen. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, pp. 762-796.
19. Depue, R.A., & Morrone-Strupinsky, J.V. (2005). A neurobehavioral model of affiliative bonding: Implications for conceptualizing a human trait of affiliation. Behavioral & Brain Sciences 28:313-395.
20. Farmer, R.F., & Goldberg, L.R. (2008a). Brain modules, personality layers, planes of being, spiral structures, and the equally implausible distinction between TCI-R temperament and character scales: Reply to Cloninger. Psychological Assessment 20:300-304.
21. Farmer, R.F., & Goldberg, L.R. (2008b). A psychometric evaluation of the Revised Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI-R) and the TCI-140. Psychological Assessment 20:281-291.
22. Fertuck, E.A., Lenzenweger, M.F., Clarkin, J.F., Hoermann, S., & Stanley, B. (2006). Executive neurocognition, memory systems, and borderline personality disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 26:346-375.
23. First, M.B., Gibbon, M., Spitzer, R.L., Williams, J.B.W., & Benjamin, L. (1994). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II), Version 2.0. New York: Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
24. Fossati, A., Maffei, C., Bagnato, M., Donati, D., Namia, C., & Novella, L. (1999). Latent structure analysis of DSM-IV borderline personality disorder criteria. Comprehensive Psychiatry 40:72-79.
25. Freud, S. (1914). On narcissism: An introduction. Standard Edition 14:67-102.
26. Frosch, J. (1970). Psychoanalytic considerations of the psychotic character. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 18:24-50.
27. Gangestad, S., & Snyder, M. (1985). To carve nature at its joints: On the existence of discrete classes in personality. Psychological Review 92: 317-349.
28. Gottesman, I.I., & Gould, T.D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: Etymology and strategic intentions. American Journal of Psychiatry 160:636-645.
29. Grinker, R.R., Werble, B., & Drye, R.C. (1968). The Borderline Syndrome: A Behavioral Study of Ego-Functions. New York: Basic Books.
30. Gunderson, J.G. (2007). Disturbed relationships as a phenotype for borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 164:1637-1640.
31. Gunderson, J.G. (2009). Borderlime personality disorder: Ontogeny of a diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 166:530-539.
32. Gunderson, J.G., Bender, D., Sanislow, C., Yen, S., Rettew, J.B., Dolan-Sewell, R., Dyck, I., Morey, L.C., McGlashan, T.H., Shea, M.T., & Skodol, A.E. (2003). Plausibility and possible determinants of sudden remissions in borderline patients. Psychiatry 66:111-119.
33. Gunderson, J.G., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2008). BPD's interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene-environment-developmental model. Journal of Personality Disorders 22:22-41.
34. Gunderson, J.G., & Phillips, K.A. (1991). A current view of the interface between borderline personality disorder and depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 148:967-975.
35. Hare, R.D. (1993). Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths among Us. New York: Guilford Press.
36. Haslam, N. (2003). The dimensional view of personality disorders: A review of the taxometric literature. Clinical Psychology Review 23:75-93.
37. Haslam, N. (2007). The latent structure of mental disorders: A taxometric update on the categorical vs. dimensional debate. Current Psychiatry Reviews 3:172-177.
38. Johnson, J.G., Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Skodol, A.E., Hamagan, F., & Brook, J.S. (2000). Age-related change in personality disorder trait levels between early adolescence and adulthood: A community-based longitudinal investigation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 102:265-275.
39. Kendler, K.S., McGuire, M., Gruenberg, A.M., O'Hare, A., Spellman, M., & Walsh, D. (1993). The Roscommon Family Study: III. Schizophrenia-related personality disorders in relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry 50:781-788.
40. Kernberg, O.F. (1967). Borderline personality organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 15:641-685.
41. Kernberg, O.F. (1975). Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism. New York: Aronson.
42. Kernberg, O.F. (1984). Severe Personality Disorders. New Haven: Yale University Press.
43. Kernberg, O.F., & Caligor, E. (2005). A psychoanalytic theory of personality disorders. In Major Theories of Personality Disorder, ed. M.F. Lenzenweger & J.F. Clarkin. New York: Guilford Press, pp. 114-156.
44. Knight, R.P. (1953). Borderline states. In Psychoanalytic Psychiatry and Psychology: Clinical and Theoretical Papers, ed. R.P. Knight & C.R. Fried-man. 4th ed. New York: International Universities Press, 1954, pp. 97-110.
45. Leichsenring, F., & Rabung, S. (2008). Effectiveness of long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 300:1551-1565.
46. Lenzenweger, M.F. (1999a). Schizophrenia: Refining the phenotype, resolving endophenotypes. Behaviour Research & Therapy 37:281-295.
47. Lenzenweger, M.F. (1999b). Stability and change in personality disorder features: The Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 56:1009-1015.
48. Lenzenweger, M.F. (2004). Consideration of the challenges, complications, and pitfalls of taxometric analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113:10-23.
49. Lenzenweger, M.F. (2006). The Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders: History, design, and initial findings. Journal of Personality Disorders 6:645-670.
50. Lenzenweger, M.F. (2008). Epidemiology of personality disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 31:395-403.
51. Lenzenweger, M.F. (2010a). Schizotypy and Schizophrenia: The View from Experimental Psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.
52. Lenzenweger, M.F. (2010b). A source, a cascade, a schizoid: A heuristic proposal from the Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Development & Psychopathology 22:867-881.
53. Lenzenweger, M.F., & Castro, D.D. (2005). Predicting change in borderline personality: Using neurobehavioral systems indicators within an individual growth curve framework. Development & Psychopathology 17:1207-1237.
54. Lenzenweger, M.F., Clarkin, J.F., Fertuck, E.A., & Kernberg, O.F. (2004). Executive neurocognitive functioning and neurobehavioral systems indicators in borderline personality disorder: A preliminary study. Journal of Personality Disorders 18:421-438.
55. Lenzenweger, M.F., Clarkin, J.F., Kernberg, O.F., & Foelsch, P. (2001). The Inventory of Personality Organization: Psychometric properties, factorial composition, and criterion relations with affect, aggressive dyscontrol, psychosis-proneness, and self domains. Psychological Assessment 4:577-591.
56. Lenzenweger, M.F., Clarkin, J.F., Yeomans, F.E., Kernberg, O.F., & Levy, K.N. (2008). Refining the borderline personality disorder phenotype through finite mixture modeling: Implications for classification. Journal of Personality Disorders 22:313-331.
57. Lenzenweger, M.F., Jensen, S., & Rubin, D.B. (2003). Finding the genuine schizotype: A model and method for resolving heterogeneity in performance on laboratory measures in experimental psychopathology research. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112:457-468.
58. Lenzenweger, M.F., Johnson, M.D., & Willett, J.B. (2004). Individual growth curve analysis illuminates stability and change in personality disorder features: The Longitudinal Study of Personality Disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 61:1015-1024.
59. Lenzenweger, M.F., Lane, M., Loranger, A.W., & Kessler, R.C. (2007). DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Biological Psychiatry 62:553-564.
60. Lenzenweger, M.F., Loranger, A.W., Korfine, L., & Neff, C. (1997). Detecting personality disorders in a nonclinical population: Application of a two-stage procedure for case identification. Archives of General Psychiatry 54:345-351.
61. Lenzenweger, M.F., McLachlan, G., & Rubin, D.B. (2007). Resolving the latent structure of schizophrenia endophenotypes using EM-based finite mixture modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116:16-29.
62. Lenzenweger, M.F., & Moldin, S.O. (1990). Discerning the latent structure of hypothetical psychosis proneness through admixture analysis. Psychiatry Research 33:243-257.
63. Linehan, L.M., Heard, H.L., & Armstrong, H.E. (1993). Naturalistic follow-up of a behavioral treatment for chronically suicidal borderline patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 50:971-974.
64. Livesley, W.J., Jang, K.L., & Vernon, P.A. (1998). Phenotypic and genetic structure of traits delineating personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 55:941-948.
65. Loranger, A. (1999). International Personality Disorder Examination (IPDE) Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
66. McClough, J.F., Clarkin, J.F., Lenzenweger, M.F., & Kernberg, O.F. (n.d.). The Inventory of Personality Organization (IPO) in a clinical sample of borderline personality disorder patients. Unpublished data.
67. McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2000). Finite Mixture Models. New York: Wiley.
68. Meehl, P.E. (1992). Factors and taxa, traits and types, differences of degree and differences of kind. Journal of Personality 60:117-174.
69. Meehl, P.E. (1995). Bootstraps taxometrics: Solving the classification problem in psychopathology. American Psychologist 50:266-275.
70. Meehl, P.E. (2001). Primary and secondary hypohedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110:188-193.
71. Meehl, P.E., & Yonce, L.J. (1996). Taxometric analysis: II. Detecting taxonicity using covariance of two quantitative indicators in successive intervals of a third indicator (MAXCOV procedure). Psychological Reports 78:1091-1227.
72. New, A.A., Triebwasser, J., & Charney, D.S. (2008). The case for shifting borderline personality disorder to Axis I. Biological Psychiatry 64:653-659.
73. Pfohl, B., Blum, N., & Zimmerman, M. (1997). Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality (SIDP-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
74. Rado, S. (1960). Theory and therapy: The theory of schizotypal organization and its application to the treatment of decompensated schizotypal behavior. In The Outpatient Treatment of Schizophrenia, ed. S.C. Scher & H.R. Davis. New York: Grune & Stratton, pp. 87-101.
75. Reich, W. (1933). Character Analysis. New York: Orgone Institute Press, 1949.
76. Rockland, L.H. (1992). Supportive Therapy for Borderline Patients: A Psychodynamic Approach. New York: Guilford Press.
77. Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R.L. (1991). Essentials of Behavioral Research: Methods and Data Analysis. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
78. Rosenthal, R., Rosnow, R., & Rubin, D.B. (2000). Contrasts and Effect Sizes in Behavioral Research: A Correlational Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
79. Sanislow, C.A., Grilo, C.M., & McGlashan, T.H. (2000). Factor analysis of the DSM-III-R borderline personality disorder criteria in psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 157:1629-1633.
80. Sanislow, C.A., Grilo, C.M., Morey, L.C., Bender, D.S., Skodol, A.E., Gunderson, J.G., Shea, M.T., Stout, R.L., Zanarini, M.C., & McGlashan, T.H. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of DSM-IV criteria for borderline personality disorder: Findings from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:284-290.
81. Saulsman, L.M., & Page, A.C. (2004). The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review 23:1055-1085.
82. Schmahl, C.G., Elzinga, B.M., Ebner, U.W., Simms, T., Sanislow, C., Vermetten, E., McGlashan, T.H., & Bremner, D. (2004). Psychophysiological reactivity to traumatic and abandonment scripts in borderline personality and posttraumatic stress disorders: A preliminary report. Psychiatry Research 126: 33-42.
83. Shea, M., Stout, R., Gunderson, J., Morey, L., Grilo, C., McGlashan, T., Skodol, A., Dolan-Sewell, R., Dyck, I., Zanarini, M., & Keller, M. (2002). Short-term diagnostic stability of schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 159:2036-2041.
84. Shedler, J., & Westen, D. (2004). Dimensions of personality pathology: An alternative to the five-factor model. American Journal of Psychiatry 161: 1743-1745.
85. Shevlin, M., Dorahy, M., Adamson, G., & Murphy, J. (2007). Subtypes of borderline personality disorder, associated clinical disorders and stressful life-events: A latent class analysis based on the British Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 46:273-281.
86. Siever, L.J., & Davis, K.L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 148:1647-1658.
87. Siever, L.J., Torgersen, S., Gunderson, J.G., Livesley, W.J., & Kendler, K.S. (2002). The borderline diagnosis: III. Identifying endophenotypes for genetic studies. Biological Psychiatry 51:964-968.
88. Siever, L.J., & Weinstein, L.N. (2009). The neurobiology of personality disorders: Implications for psychoanalysis. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 57:361-398.
89. Silbersweig, D., Clarkin, J.F., Goldstein, M., Kernberg, O., Tuescher, O., Levy, K.N., Brendel G., Pan, H., Beutel, M., Pavoney, M.T., Epstein, J., Lenzenweger, M.F., Thomas, K., Posner, M.I., & Stern, E. (2007). Failure of the fronto-limbic inhibitory function in the context of negative emotion in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 164:1832-1841.
90. Spoont, M. (1992). Modulatory role of serotonin in neural information processing: Implications for human psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin 112:330-350.
91. Stallings, M.C., Hewitt, J.K., Cloninger, C.R., Heath, A.C., & Eaves, L.J. (1996). Genetic and environmental structure of the Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: Three or four temperament dimensions? Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 70:127-140.
92. Stern, A. (1939). Psychoanalytic investigation of and therapy in the borderline group of neuroses. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 7:467-489.
93. Stern, B.L., Caligor, E., Clarkin, J., Critchfield, C., Horz, S., Maccornack, V., Lenzenweger, M.F., & Kernberg, O.F. (2010). Structured Interview of Personality Organization (STIPO): Preliminary psychometrics in a clinical sample. Journal of Personality Assessment 92:35-44.
94. Tellegen, A. (1982). Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire Manual. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
95. Tellegen, A. (1985). Structure of mood and personality and their relevance for assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report. In Anxiety and the Anxiety Disorders, ed. A. Tuma & J. Maser. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, pp. 681-706.
96. Thatcher, D.L., Cornelius, J.R., & Clark, D.B. (2005). Adolescent alcohol use disorders predict adult borderline personality. Addictive Behaviors 30:1709-1724.
97. Torgersen, S., Kringlen, E., & Cramer, V. (2001). The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Archives of General Psychiatry 58:590-596.
98. Waller, N.G., Lilienfeld, S.O., Tellegen, A., & Lykken, D.T. (1991). The Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire: Structural validity and comparison with the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. Multivariate Behavioral Research 26:1-23.
99. Waller, N.G., & Meehl, P.E. (1998). Multivariate Taxometric Procedures: Distinguishing Types from Continua. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
100. Waller, N.G., Yonce, L.J., Grove, W.M., Faust, D.A., & Lenzenweger, M.F., EDS. (2006). A Paul Meehl Reader: Essays on the Practice of Scientific Psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
101. Westen, D. (1996). A model and a method for uncovering the nomothetic from the idiographic: An alternative to the five-factor model? Journal of Research in Personality 30:400-413.
102. Wilder, J. (1957). The law of initial values in neurology and psychiatry. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 13:73-86.
103. Zanarini, M.C., Frankenburg, F.R., Dubo, E.D., Sickel, A.E., & Trikha, A. (1998). Axis I comorbidity of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 155:1733-1739.
104. Zanarini, M.C., Frankenburg, F.R., Hennen, J., Reich, D.B., & Silk, K.R. (2006). Prediction of the 10-year course of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 163:827-832.
105. Zanarini, M.C., Frankenburg, F.R., Hennen, J., & Silk K.R. (2003). The longitudinal course of borderline psychopathology: 6-year prospective follow-up of the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 160:274-283.
106. Zimmerman, M. (1994). Diagnosing personality disorders: A review of issues and research methods. Archives of Geneal Psychiatry 51:225-245.