Metals and materials from deep sea nodules: An outlook for the future

International Materials Reviews

Volumn 55, Issue 6, 2010, Pages 364-391

  Sen, P K ^a  

^a INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (India)

Author keywords

Cost analysis; Manganese recovery; Nodules leaching; Ocean nodules processing; Process flow sheet optimisation; Reviews; Smelting

Indexed keywords

COBALT; DEPOSITS; FERROALLOYS; MANGANESE ALLOYS; MANGANESE COMPOUNDS; MANGANESE NODULES; ORES; RECOVERY; SMELTING; STEELMAKING;

COST ANALYSIS; DEEP SEA; GLOBAL DATA; MANGANESE RECOVERY; NODULE LEACHING; OCEAN NODULE PROCESSING; OPTIMISATIONS; PROCESS FLOW SHEET OPTIMIZATION; PROCESS FLOWSHEETS; SEA NODULES;

SOLVENT EXTRACTION;

EID: 78649562807     PISSN: 09506608     EISSN: 17432804     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1179/095066010X12777205875714     Document Type: Review

References (179)

1. L. A Corathers: 'US geological survey (USGS) minerals yearbook, manganese - 2004, 2005', available at: http://minerals.usgs. gov (accessed 21 October 2008).
2. J. L. Mero: 'The mineral resources of the sea', 312; 1965, Amsterdam, Elsevier.
3. P. Halbach and R. Fellerer: GeoJournal, 1980, 4, (5), 407.
4. K. Saffy: Proc. IMnI 3rd EPD China Conf., Changsha, China, May 2006, IMnI, available at: http://www.manganese.org (accessed 21 October 2008).
5. K. Saffy: Proc. IMnI 29th Annual Conf., Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Jun 2003, IMnI, available at: www.manganese.org (accessed 21 October 2008).
6. Z. Z. Tan: Proc. IMnI 3rd EPD China Conf., Changsha, China, May 2006, IMnI, available at: http://www.manganese.org (accessed 21 October 2008).
7. M. M. Rashad: Mater. Sci. Eng. B, 2006, B127, 123.
8. G. P. Glasby: in 'Marine geochemistry', 2nd revised updated edn, 'Manganese: predominant role of nodules and crusts', 371; 2006, SpringerLink,.
9. G. P Glasby: Marine Mining, 1982, 3, 231.
10. G. P Glasby: S. Pacific Marine Geol. Notes, 1981, 2, (3), 37.
11. D. S. Cronan and S. A. Moorby: Oceanol. Int., 1987, paper 0182, 1.5.
12. P. A. Verlaan, D. S. Cronan and C. L. Morgan: Prog. Oceanogr., 2004, 63, 125.
13. D. S. Cronan, R. A. Hodkinson and S. Miller: Marine Geol., 1991, 98, 425.
14. R. Handschuh, E. Schulte, H. Grede and W. Schwarz: Proc. 5th ISOPE Ocean Mining Symp., Tsukuba, Japan, September 2003, ISOPE, 71.
15. W. Buser and A. Grutter: Schweizerische mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen, 1956, 36, 49.
16. J. S. Tooms, C. P. Summerhayes and D. S. Cronan: Oceanogr. Marine Biol., 1969, 7, 49.
17. R. Giovanoli, R. Maurer and W. Feitknecht: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1967, 50, 1072-1080.
18. R. Giovanoli, K. Bernhard and W. Feitknecht: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1968, 51, 355.
19. R. Giovanoli and U. Levenberoer: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1969, 52, 2333-2347.
20. R. Giovanoli, E. Stahli and W. Feitknecht: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1970, 53, 209.
21. R. Giovanoli, E. Stahli and W. Feitknecht: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1970, 53, 453.
22. R. Giovanoli, W. Feitknecht and F. Fischer: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1971, 54, 1112.
23. O. Bricker: Am. Mineral., 1965, 50, 1296.
24. R. G. Burns and V. M. Burns: 'Manganese oxides', in 'Marine minerals', Vol. 6, 1; 1979, Chelsea, MI, Litho Crafters Inc.
25. S. Turner and P. R. Buseck: Science, 1979, 203, 456.
26. S. Turner, S. M. Seigel and P. R. Buseck: Nature, 1982, 296, 841.
27. R. G. Burns and V. M. Burns: Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A, 1977, 286A, 283.
28. G. P. Glasby (ed.): 'Marine manganese deposits', 523; 1977, Amsterdam, Elsevier.
29. J. W. Murray: 'Marine minerals', Vol. 6, 47; 1979, Chelsea, MI, Litho Crafters Inc.
30. E. D. Goldberg: J. Geol., 1954, 62, 249.
31. K. B. Krauskopf: Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 1956, 9, 1B.
32. R. G. Burns and D. W. Fuerstenau: Am. Mineral., 1966, 51, 895-902.
33. D. J. Murray, T. W. Healy and D. W. Fuerstenau: Adv. Chem. Series, 1968, 79, 74.
34. W. Buser and A. Grutter: Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 1956, 36, 49.
35. W. Buser, P. Graf and W. Feitknecht: Helvetica Chim. Acta, 1954, 37, 2322.
36. R. G. Burns: Nature, 1965, 205, 999.
37. G Arrhenius and E. Bonatti: in 'Progress in oceanography', (ed. M. Sears), Vol. 3, 7; 1965, Oxford, Pergamon Press.
38. R. G. Burns: 'Mineralogical applications of crystal field theory', 168; 1970, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
39. K. N. Han: 'Geochemistry and extraction of metals from ocean floor manganese nodules', PhD thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA, 1971.
40. G. P. Glasby, R. R. Keays, and P. C. Rankin: Geochem. J., 1978, 12, 229.
41. D. Z. Piper and M. Williamson: Marine Geol., 1977, 23, 285.
42. B. W. Haynes, S. L. Law, D. C. Barron and C. B. David: 'Mineralogical and elemental description pacific manganese nodules', IC 8906, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1983, 60.
43. T. Thijssen, G. P. Glasby, A. S. Wiechowski, G. Friedrich, H. Kunzendorf, D. Muller and H. Richter: Marine Mining, 1981, 2, (4), 385.
44. R. Kumar, R. K. Ray and A. K Biswas: in 'Productivity and technology in the metallurgical industries' (ed. M. Koch and J. C. Taylor), 561-586; 1989, Warrendale, PA, The Metallurgical Society of AIME.
45. K. M. Parida, P. K. Satapathy, N. N. Das and S. B. Rao: J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 1996, 179, 241.
46. D. S. Cronan: 'The geochemistry of some manganese nodules and associated pelagic sediments', PhD thesis, University of London, London, UK, 1967.
47. B. A. Brown: 'A geochemical investigation of inter-element relations in deep-sea ferromanganese nodules', PhD thesis, University of Oxford, UK, 1971.
48. K. N. Han, M. P. Hoover and D. W. Fuersteanau: Marine Mining, 1979, 2, (1-2), 131.
49. M. von Heimendahl, G. L. Hubred, D. W. Fuerstenau and G. Thomas: Deep-Sea Res., 1976, 23, 69.
50. J. C. Agarwal, N. Beecher, D. S. Davies, G. L. Hubred, V. K. Kakaria and J. H. Moslen: Marine Mining, 1979, 2, (1-2), 119.
51. J. P. Lenoble: 'Future deep sea bed mining of poymetallic nodules'; 1990, Issy-les-Moulineaux Cedex, IFFREMER.
52. J. P. Lenoble: 'Deep sea nodules: a future challenge?', Lecture at IMnI, Barcelona, Brazil, 1994.
53. D. B. Wellbeloved, P. M. Craven and J. W. Waudby: 'Manganese and manganese alloys', in 'Ullman's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry', 6th edn; 2002, Weinheim, Wiley-VCH.
54. L. R. Matricardi and J. Downing: 'Manganese and manganese alloys', in 'Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology', 5th edn; 2007, Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & sons Inc.
55. R. Shridhar, W. E. Jones and J. S. Warner: J. Met., 1976, April, 32.
56. A. K. Ray: available at: http://www.tatasteel.com/webzine/ tatatech42/page-11.htm (accessed date November 2008).
57. M. Riss and Y. Khardovsky: 'Production of ferroalloys'; 1967, Moscow, Mir Publishers.
58. G. P. Glasby: Marine Georesources Geo-Technol., 2002, 20, (2), 161.
59. H. E. Barner, D. S. Davies and L. J. Szabo: 'Two-stage fluid bed reduction of manganese nodules', US patent no. 4044094, 1977.
60. R. E. Lueders, R. N. Kust and L. J. Szabo: 'Use of raw manganese nodules for oxidation leaching of reductively roasted manganese nodules', US patent no. 4020143, 1977.
61. E. J. Moreau, R. S. Opalanko, N. Schapiro and R. E. Leuders: 'Manganese nodules pelletizing', US patent no. 3942974, 1976.
62. Y Okajima: 'Process for treating manganese nodules', US patent no. 4029498, 1977.
63. T. C. Wilder and J. J. Andreola: 'Recovery of copper, nickel cobalt and molybdenum from complex ores', US patent no. 3753686, 1973.
64. A. Illis and B. J. Brandt: 'Selective process for the recovery of metal values from nodules', Canadian patent no. 974371, 1975.
65. B. W. Haynes, S. L. Law and R. Maeda: 'Updated process flowsheets for manganese nodule processing', IC 8924, US Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1982, 99.
66. Anon.: Metals Week, Jan 21, 1974, 1, 10.
67. J. C. Agarwal: Eng. Min. J., 1976, December, 74.
68. M. Hoover, K. N. Han and D. W. Fuerstenau: Int. J. Miner. Process., 1975, 2, 173.
69. B. K. Parekh, T. L. B Jepsen and W. M. Goldberger: Marine Mining, 1988, 7, 417.
70. K. N. Han and D. W. Fuerstenau: Int. J. Miner. Process., 1975, 2, 163.
71. K. L. Subramanian, K. Nagaraja and V. Glaum: 'Two stage sulfuric acid leaching of sea nodules', US patent no. 4046851, 1977.
72. P. Faugerres: 'Procede d'extraction du nickel et du cuivre des nodules des grands fonds marins', Fr 2262699, 1975.
73. L. J. Szabo: 'Recovery of metal values from manganese deep sea nodules using ammoniacal cuprous leach solution', US patent no. 3983017, 1976.
74. H. E. Barner, R. N. Kust and R. P. Cox: 'Elevated pressure operation in the cuprion process', US patent no. 3988416, 1976.
75. H. E. Barner: J. Met., 1983, May, 59.
76. N. K. Mittal and P. K. Sen: Miner. Eng., 2003, 16, 865.
77. K. N. Han and D. W. Fuerstenau: Metall. Trans. B, 1976, 7B, 679.
78. K. N. Han and D. W. Fuerstenau: Metall. Trans. B, 1976, 7B, 687.
79. G. Senanayake and G. K. Das: Hydrometallurgy, 2004, 72, (1-2), 59-72.
80. R. Kumar, R. K. Ray and A. K. Biswas: Hydrometallurgy, 1990, 25, 61.
81. J. H. Canterford: Miner. Sci. Eng., 1975, 7, (1), 3-17.
82. R. G. McDonald and B. I. Whittington: Hydrometallurgy, 2008, 91, 35-55.
83. J. H. Canterford: Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall., 1978, 265, 19.
84. D. H. Rubisov and V. G. Papangelakis: Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 58, 89.
85. D. H. Rubisov, J. M. Krowinkel and V. G. Papangelakis: Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 58, 1.
86. R. R. Skarbo and D. L. Natwig: 'Liquid ion exchange process for recovery of copper and nickel', US patent no. 3988151, 1976.
87. R. R. Skarbo: 'Nickel extraction and stripping using oximes and ammoniacal carbonate solution', US patent no. 3907966, 1975.
88. J. A. Francisco and M. Alonso: J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 1999, 74, 71.
89. C. Parija and P. V. R. Bhaskara Sarma: Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 54, 195.
90. P. V. R. Bhaskara Sarma and K. C. Nathsarma: Hydrometallurgy, 1996, 42, 83.
91. F. J. Alguacil: Hydrometallurgy, 1999, 52, 55.
92. D. Burvill: 'Engineering aspects of the Cawse nickel/cobalt laterite project', Proc. ALTA 1999 Nickel/Cobalt Pressure Leaching and Hydrometallurgy Forum; Subsection: Laterite Project, Paper no. 4, Melbourne, Australia, 1999, ALTA Metallurgical Services.
93. J. H. Kyle and D. Furfaro: 'The Cawse nickel/cobalt laterite project metallurgical process development', in 'Hydrometallurgy and refining of nickel and cobalt', (ed. W. C. Cooper and I. Mihayov), 379-389; 1997, Montreal, Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum.
94. G. Motteram, M. Ryan, R. Berezowsky and R. Raudsepp: 'Murrin Murrin nickel and cobalt project: project development overview', Proc. ALTA 1996 Nickel/Cobalt Pressure Leaching and Hydrometallurgy Forum, Perth, Western Australia, 1996, ALTA Metallurgical Services, Paper no. 2.
95. C. Y. Cheng: Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 56, 369.
96. S. Donegan: Miner. Eng., 2006, 19, 1234.
97. C. Y. Cheng: Hydrometallurgy, 2006, 84, 109.
98. W. Zhang and C. Y. Cheng: Hydrometallurgy, 2007, 89, 160.
99. G. Bacon and I. Mihaynov: Proc. Int. Solvent Extraction Conf., Cape Town, South Africa, March 2002, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1.
100. G. M. Ritcey: Tsinghua Sci. Technol., 2006, 11, (2), 137.
101. L. Caron, M. Stambouli and G. Durand: Proc. Int. Solvent Extraction Conf., Cape Town, South Africa, March 2002, South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 774.
102. D. S. Flett: J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol., 1999, 74, 99.
103. S. E. Khalafalla and J. E. Pahlman: J. Met., 1981, 33, 37.
104. S. E. Khalafalla and J. E. Pahlman: Bureau of Mines, RI 8518, 1981.
105. J. H. Canterford: Hydrometallurgy, 1984, 12, 334.
106. S. Anand, S. C. Das, R. P. Das and P. K. Jena: Hydrometallurgy, 1988, 20, 155.
107. Y. Zhang, Q. Liu and C. Sun: Miner. Eng., 2001, 14, (5), 525.
108. Y. Zhang, Q. Liu and C. Sun: Miner. Eng., 2001, 14, (5), 539.
109. J. P. Allen, H. L. Abercrombie and D. A. Rice: Miner. Metall. Process., 1991, 8, (2), 97.
110. T. Jiang, Y. B. Yang, Z. C. Huang and G. Z. Qiu: Hydrometallurgy, 2003, 69, 177-186.
111. W. S. Kane and P. H. Cardwell: 'Two-stage selective leaching of metal values from ocean floor nodules', US patent no. 3930974, 1976.
112. H. Vu, J. Jandová, K. Lisá and F. Vranka: Hydrometallurgy, 2005, 77, 147.
113. M. Trifoni, F. Veglio, G. Taglieri and L. Toro: Miner. Eng., 2000, 13, (2), 217
114. F. Veglio and L. Toro: Hydrometallurgy, 1994, 36, 215.
115. F. Veglio, M. Trifoni and L. Toro: Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 2001, 40, 3895.
116. M. Trifoni, L. Toro and F. Veglio: Hydrometallurgy, 2001, 59, 1.
117. H. Su, Y. Wen, F. Wang, Y. Sun and Z. Tong: Hydrometallurgy, 2008, 93, 136.
118. D. Hariprasad, B. Dash, M. K. Ghosh and S. Anand: Miner. Eng., 2007, 2, 1293.
119. M. C. Jha, G. A. Meyer and G. R. Wicker: J. Met., 1981, November, 48.
120. J. Jandová, K. Lisá, F. Vu and F. Vranka: Hydrometallurgy, 2005, 77, 75.
121. Y. Xu, Y. Xie, J. Liu, L. Yan and R. Yang: Hydrometallurgy, 2009, 95, 28.
122. J. E. Post: Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA, 1999, 96, 3447.
123. O. Giraldo, S. L. Brock, W. S. Willis, M. Marquez, S. L. Suib and S. Ching: J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2000, 122, 9330.
124. A. R. Armstrong and P. G. Bruce: Nature, 1996, 381, 499.
125. W. Zhang and C. Y. Cheng: Hydrometallurgy, 2007, 89, 137.
126. A. H. Reidies: 'Manganese compounds', in 'Ullman's encyclopedia of industrial chemistry', 6th edn, 2002, Weinheim, Wiley-VCH.
127. F. Pagnanelli, C. Sambenedetto, G. Furlani, F. Veglio and L. Toro: J. Power Sources, 2007, 166, 567.
128. R. Raghavan and R. N. Upadhyay: Hydrometallurgy, 1999, 51, 207.
129. Y. Darmane, M. Cherkaoui, S. Kitane, A. Alaoui, A. Sebban and M. Ebn Touhami: Hydrometallurgy, 2008, 92, 73-78.
130. W. S. Kane and P. H. Cardwell: 'Method for separating metal constituents from ocean floor nodules', US patent no. 3950486, 1976.
131. P. H. Cardwell and W. S. Kane: 'Halidation of manganiferous ores to obtain metal values and recycle of halide values', US patent no. 3992507, 1976.
132. A. L. van Peteghem: 'Extracting metal values from manganiferous ocean nodules', US patent no. 4026773, 1977.
133. T. Havlik, M. Laubertova, A. Miskufova, J. Kondas and F. Vranka: Hydrometallurgy, 2005, 77, 51.
134. N. B. Devi, M. Madhuchhanda, K. Srinivasa Rao, P. C. Rath and R. K. Paramguru: Hydrometallurgy, 2000, 57, 57.
135. F. Vranka: Proc. 5th ISOPE Ocean Mining Symp., Tsukuba, Japan, September 2003, ISOPE, 223.
136. C. J. Johnson and J. M. Otto: Resources Policy, 1986, 12, (1), 17.
137. J. Malnic and A. Frontier: 'Direct nickel', Proc. Int. Seabed Authority, Workshop on 'Polymetallic nodule mining technology - current status and challenges ahead', Chennai, India, February 2008, International Seabed Authority, Subsection : Other technological developments, Paper no. 3.
138. T. S. Kleppe and L. S. Ratiner: 'Ocean mining: an economic evaluation', Professional Staff Study, Ocean Mining Administration, 1976.
139. J. D. Nyhart: 'A pioneer deep ocean mining venture', Sea Grant Program; 1983, Cambridge, MA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
140. P. D. Ingham: 'Profitability of mining polymetallic nodules from the deep sea bed in the North East Pacific Ocean', Australian Bureau of Mineral Resources, 1985, 79.
141. B. V. Andrews, J. E. Flipse and F. C. Brown: 'The economic viability of a four metal pioneer deep ocean mining venture', TAMU-SG-84-201, Texas A&M University, 1983, 201.
142. C. Charles: 'Views on future nodules technologies based on IFREMER-GEOMONOD studies', Mater. Soc., 1990, 14, (3-4), 299-326.
143. K.-S. Ham: 'A study on economics of development of deep sea bed manganese nodules', Proc. 2nd Ocean Min. Symp., Seoul, Korea, November 1997, International Society of Offshore and Potar Engineers, 105-111.
144. C. T. Hillman and B. B. Gosling: 'Mining deep ocean manganese nodules: description and economic analysis of a potential venture', IC 9015, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1985, 19.
145. F. Soreide, T. Lund and J. M. Markussen: 'Deep ocean mining reconsidered: a study of the manganese nodules deposits in Cook Island', Proc. 4th Ocean Min. Symp., Szczecin, Poland, September 2001, ISOPE, 88.
146. P. K. Sen and S. K. Das: 'Sea nodules processing-Status review for commercialization', Proc. Int. Seabed Authority, Workshop on 'Polymetallic nodule mining technology - current status and challenges ahead', Subsection: Current Status of technology development, Paper no. 2, Chennai, India, February 2008, International Seabed Authority.
147. B. W. Haynes and S. Law: 'Predicted characteristics of waste materials from the processing of manganese nodules, IC 8904, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1982, 10.
148. B. W. Haynes, D. C. Barron, G. W. Kramer, R. Maeda and M. J. Magyar: 'Laboratory processing and characterization of waste materials from manganese nodules', RI 8938, US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1984, 16.
149. L. J. Friedman: Chem. Eng. Prog., 1982, February, 51.
150. R. Mayze: 'An engineering comparison of the three treatment flowsheets in WA nickel laterite projects', Proc. ALTA 1999 Nickel/Cobalt Pressure Leaching and Hydrometallurgy Forum, Subsection: Laterite Projects, Paper no. 6, Melbourne, Australia, 1999, ALTA Metallurgical Services.
151. M. Halmann, A. Frei and A. Steinfeld: Energy, 2002, 27, 1069.
152. J. C. Arroyo, J. D. Gillaspie, D. A. Neudorf and E. M. Weenik: 'Method for leaching nickeliferrous laterite ores', US patent no. 6379636, 2002.
153. K. Miettinen: 'Non-linear multi-objective optimization', 1st edn; 1999, Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
154. N. Chakraborti, B. Siva Kumar, S. Babu, S. Moitra and A. Mukhopadhyay: Appl. Math. Modell., 2008, 32, 1781.
155. F. Pettersson, N. Chakraborti and H. Saxén: Appl. Soft Comput., 2007, 7, (1), 387.
156. H. Saxén, F. Pettersson and K. Gunturu: Mater. Manuf. Process., 2007, 22, (5), 577.
157. A. Biswas, N. Chakraborti and P. K. Sen: Miner. Process. Extract. Metall. Rev., 2009, 30, 163-189.
158. H. S. Chen and M. A. Stadtherr: AIChE J., 1985, 31, (11), 1843.
159. F. Veglio and L. Toro: Int. J. Miner. Process., 1994, 40, 257.
160. A. Biswas, N. Chakraborti and P. K. Sen: Mater. Manuf. Process., 2009, 24, 22.
161. F. Pettersson, A. Biswas, P. K. Sen, H. Saxén and N. Chakraborti: Mater. Manuf. Process., 2009, 24, 320-330.
162. A. Biswas, O. Maitre, D. N. Mondal, S. K. Das, P. K. Sen, P. Collet and N. Chakrabnorti: Mater. Manuf. Process., to be published.
163. Biswas, A. N. Chakraborti and P. K. Sen: Proc. Eighth ISOPE Ocean Mining (& Gas Hydrates) Symp., Chennai, India, September 2009, ISOPE, 124.
164. M. Nitta: Appl. Catal., 1984, 9, 151
165. C. Dodet, F. Noville, M. Crine, P. Marchot and J. P. Pirard: Appl. Catal., 1984, 11, 251
166. C. D. Chang and A. J. Silvestri: Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 1974, 13, (3), 315.
167. C. D. Chang and A. J. Silvestry: Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 1976, 15, (1), 161.
168. S. M. Oleck and H. S. Sherry: Ind. Eng. Chem. Process Des. Dev., 1977, 16, (4), 525.
169. C. Dodet, F. Noville, M. Crine, P. Marchot and J. P. Pirard: Colloids Surf., 1984, 11, 187.
170. K. Parida and P. K. Satapathy: J. Colloid Interf. Sci., 1998, 202, 313.
171. S. Maity, S. Chakravarty, S. Bhattacharjee and B. C. Roy: Water Res., 2005, 39, 2579.
172. J. Cheng, X. Zhang, J. Tu, X. Tao, Y. Ye and F. Liu: Mater. Chem. Phys., 2006, 95, 12.
173. T. Marjoram, H. Cameron, G. Ford, A. Garner and M. Gibbons: Resources Policy, 1981, 7, (1), 45.
174. G. P. Glasby: Science, 2000, 289, 551.
175. P. Hoagland: Resources Policy, 1993, 19, (4), 287.
176. A. D. Little, Inc.: 'Technological and economic assessment of manganese nodule mining and processing', 45; 1979, Cambridge, MA.
177. Yubko, A. Kostyuk and I. Ponomareva: Proc. Int. Seabed Authority, Workshop on 'Polymetallic nodule mining technology - current status and challenges ahead', Subsection: Current Status of technology development, Paper no. 5, Chennai, India, February 2008, International Seabed Authority.
178. R. Kotlinski, V. Stoyanova, H. Hamrak and A. Avramov: Proc. Int. Seabed Authority, Workshop on 'Polymetallic nodule mining technology - current status and challenges ahead', Subsection: Current Status of technology development, Paper no. 3, Chennai, India, February 2008, International Seabed Authority.
179. T. Yamazaki: Proc. Int. Seabed Authority, Workshop on 'Polymetallic nodule mining technology - current status and challenges ahead', Subsection: Technical framework, Paper no. 2, Chennai, India, February 2008, International Seabed Authority.