A comparative analysis of compositional variations in and between marine ferromanganese nodules and crusts in the South Pacific and their environmental controls

Progress in Oceanography

Volumn 63, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 125-158

  Verlaan, Philomène A ^a   Cronan, David S ^a   Morgan, Charles L ^b  

^a IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b i Solutions Inc   (United States)

Author keywords

0 25 S; 135 W 175 E; Aitutaki Passage; Calcium carbonate compensation depth; Ferromanganese crusts; Manganese nodules; Manihiki Plateau; Metals; Oxygen minimum layer; Penrhyn Basin; Primary production; Samoa Passage; South Pacific Ocean

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM COMPOUNDS; COMPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HYDROGEN; OXIDES; PARAMETER ESTIMATION;

CRUSTS; DIAGENESIS; ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETERS; HYDROGENESIS;

MANGANESE NODULES;

CALCIUM CARBONATE; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; COMPARATIVE STUDY; FERROMANGANESE DEPOSIT; MANGANESE NODULE; PRIMARY PRODUCTION;

OCEANIC REGIONS; PACIFIC OCEAN; PACIFIC OCEAN (SOUTH); WORLD;

EID: 12344312519     PISSN: 00796611     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pocean.2004.11.001     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Aplin, A. C. (1983). The geochemistry and environment of deposition of some ferromanganese oxide deposits from the south equatorial Pacific. Ph.D. Thesis, Imperial College, London, UK (unpublished)
2. A.C. Aplin, and D.S. Cronan Ferromanganese oxide deposits from the Central Pacific Ocean, I. Encrustations from the Line Islands Archipelago Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 49 1985 427 436
3. A.C. Aplin, and D.S. Cronan Ferromanganese oxide deposits from the Central Pacific Ocean, II. Nodules and associated sediments Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 49 1985 437 451
4. D.E. Archer An atlas of the distribution of calcium carbonate in sediments of the deep sea Global Biogeochemical Cycles 10 1996 159 174
5. W.H. Berger Deep-sea sedimentation Burke C.A. Drake C.L. The geology of continental margins 1974 Springer New York 213 241
6. W.H. Berger Biogenous deep sea sediments: production, preservation and interpretation 2nd ed. J.P. Riley R. Chester Chemical oceanography Vol. 5 1976 Academic Press London 266 387
7. W.H. Berger Sedimentation of deep-sea carbonates: maps and models of variations and fluctuations Journal of Foraminiferal Research 8 1978 286 302
8. W.H. Berger, and G. Wefer Flux of biogenous materials to the sea floor K.J. Hsue J. Thiede Use and misuse of the sea floor 1992 Wiley New York 285 304
9. W.H. Berger, C.G. Adelseck, and L.A. Mayer Distribution of carbonate in surface sediments of the Pacific Ocean Journal of Geophysical Research 81 1976 2617 2627
10. R.R. Bidigare, and M.E. Ondrusek Spatial and temporal variability of phytoplankton pigment distributions in the central and equatorial Pacific Ocean Deep-Sea Research II 43 1996 809 833
11. G.W. Boehlert, and A. Genin A review of the effects of seamounts on biological processes B.H. Keating P. Fryer R. Batiza G.W. Boehlert Seamounts, islands and atolls 1987 American Geophysical Union Washington, DC 319 334
12. B.R. Bolton, N.F. Exon, J. Ostwald, and H.R. Kudrass Geochemistry of ferromanganese crusts and nodules from the south Tasman Rise, southeast of Australia Marine Geology 84 1988 53 80
13. E.A. Boyle, F.R. Sclater, and J.M. Edmond The distribution of dissolved copper in the Pacific Earth and Planetary Science Letters 37 1977 38 54
14. K.W. Bruland Oceanographic distributions of cadmium, zinc, nickel and copper in the north Pacific Earth and Planetary Science Letters 47 1980 176 198
15. K.W. Bruland Trace elements in seawater 2nd ed. J.P. Riley R. Chester Chemical oceanography Vol. 8 1983 Academic Press London 157 220
16. V.M. Burns, and R.G. Burns Mineralogy of manganese nodules G.P. Glasby Marine manganese deposits 1977 Elsevier Amsterdam 185 248
17. E. Callender, and C.J. Bowser Manganese and copper geochemistry of interstitial fluids from manganese nodule-rich pelagic sediments of the northeastern equatorial Pacific Ocean American Journal of Science 280 1980 1063 1096
18. S.E. Calvert, and N.B. Price Geochemical variation in ferromanganese nodules and associated sediments from the Pacific Ocean Marine Chemistry 5 1977 43 74
19. F. Chayes On correlation between variables of constant sum Journal of Geophysical Research 65 1960 4185 4193
20. K.H. Coale, and K.W. Bruland Copper complexation in the northeast Pacific Limnology and Oceanography 33 1988 1084 1101
21. R.W. Collier, and J.M. Edmond The trace element geochemistry of marine biogenic particulate matter Progress in Oceanography 13 1984 113 199
22. P.F. Coutis, and J.H. Middleton The physical and biological impact of a small island wake in the deep ocean Deep-Sea Research I 49 2002 1341 1361
23. Cronan, D. S. (1997). Some controls on the geochemical variability of manganese nodules with particular reference to the tropical South Pacific. In K. Nicholson, J.R. Hein, B. Buehn, & S. Dasgupta, Manganese mineralization: Geochemistry and mineralogy of terrestrial and marine deposits (pp. 139-151). Boulder, CO: Geological Society Special Publication 119
24. D.S. Cronan, and R.A. Hodkinson Element supply to surface manganese nodules along the Aitutaki-Jarvis Transect, South Pacific Journal of the Geological Society 151 1994 391 401
25. J.J.R.F. da Silva, and R.J.P. Williams The biological chemistry of the elements 1991 Clarendon Press Oxford
26. W.B. Dade, A.J. Hogg, and B.P. Boudreau Physics of flow above the sediment-water interface B.P. Boudreau B.B. Jorgensen The benthic boundary layer: Transport processes and biogeochemistry 2001 Oxford University Press Oxford 4 43
27. M. David Developments in geomathematics 2: Geostatistical ore reserve estimation 1977 Elsevier New York
28. E.H. De Carlo, and C.M. Fraley Chemistry and mineralogy of ferromanganese deposits from the equatorial Pacific Ocean B.H. Keating B.R. Bolton Geology and offshore mineral resources of the Central Pacific Basin 1992 Springer New York 225 237
29. J.G. Dillard, D.L. Crowther, and J.W. Murray The oxidation state of cobalt and selected metals in Pacific ferromanganese nodules Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 46 1982 755 759
30. J.R. Donat, and K.W. Bruland Trace elements in the oceans B. Salbu E. Steinnes Trace elements in natural waters 1995 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 247 281
31. J. Dymond, M. Lyle, B. Finney, D.Z. Piper, K. Murphy, and R. Conard Ferromanganese nodules from MANOP sites H, S and R - control of mineralogical and chemical composition by multiple accretionary processes Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48 1984 931 949
32. N.F. Exon Manganese nodule deposits in the Central Pacific Ocean and their variation with latitude Marine Mining 4 1983 79 107
33. P.G. Falkowski, R.T. Barber, and V. Smetacek Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production Science 281 1998 200 206
34. G. Feldman, N. Kuring, W. Esaias, C. McClain, J. Elrod, and N. Maynard Ocean color: availability of the global data set EOS Transactions 70 1989 634 635 640-641
35. S.W. Fowler, and G.A. Knauer Role of large particles in the transport of elements and organic compounds through the oceanic water column Progress in Oceanography 16 1986 147 194
36. Frazer, J. (1979). The reliability of available data on element concentrations in sea-floor manganese nodules. In The UN Ocean Economics and Technology Office, Manganese nodules: Dimensions and perspectives (pp. 21-36). Dordrecht: D. Reidel
37. G.S. George Biochemical and cytological assessment of metal toxicity in marine animals R.W. Furness P.S. Rainbow Heavy metals in the marine environment 1990 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 123 142
38. Glasby, G. P., Thyssen, T., Plueger, W. L., Friedrich, G., Mangini, A., Stoffers, P. et al. (1983). Manganese nodule distribution, mineralogy and geochemistry and relation to sediment type in the Aitutaki Passage, south-west Pacific. HIG Reports-83-1. Honolulu, HI: Hawaii Institute of Geophysics
39. R.M. Gordon, J.H. Martin, and G.A. Knauer Iron in north-east Pacific waters Nature 299 1982 611 612
40. R.M. Gordon, K.S. Johnson, and K.H. Coale The behaviour of iron and other trace elements during the IronEx-I and PlumEx experiments in the equatorial Pacific Deep-Sea Research II 45 1998 995 1041
41. R. Grau, and H.R. Kudrass Pre-Eocene and younger manganese crusts from the Manihiki Plateau, southwest Pacific Ocean Marine Mining 10 1991 231 246
42. P. Halbach Processes controlling the heavy metal distribution in Pacific ferromanganese nodules and crusts Geologische Rundschau 75 1986 235 247
43. P. Halbach, U. Hebisch, and C. Scherhag Geochemical variations of ferromanganese nodules and crusts from different provinces of the Pacific Ocean and their genetic control Chemical Geology 34 1981 3 17
44. P. Halbach, R. Giovanoli, and D. von Borstel Geochemical processes controlling the relationship between Co, Mn and Fe in early diagenetic deep-sea nodules Earth and Planetary Science Letters 60 1982 226 236
45. P. Halbach, G. Friedrich, and U. von Stackelberg The manganese nodule belt of the Pacific Ocean 1988 Enke Verlag Stuttgart
46. P. Halbach, C.D. Sattler, F. Teichmann, and M. Wahsner Cobalt-rich and platinum-bearing manganese crust deposits on seamounts: nature, formation and metal potential Marine Mining 8 1989 23 39
47. M. Hartmann, and P.J. Muller Trace metals in interstitial waters from Central Pacific Ocean Sediments K.A. Fanning F. Manheim The dynamic environment of the ocean floor 1982 C. Heath Boston, MA 285 301
48. J.R. Hein, and C.L. Morgan Influence of substrate rocks on Fe-Mn crust composition Deep-Sea Research I 46 1999 855 875
49. J.R. Hein, L.A. Morgenson, D.A. Clague, and R.A. Koski Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts from the exclusive economic zone of the United States and nodules from the oceanic Pacific D.W. Scholl A. Grantz J.G. Vedder Geology and resource potential of the continental margin of Western North America and adjacent ocean basins - Beaufort Sea to Baja California 1987 Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources Earth Science Houston, TX 753 771
50. J.R. Hein, W.C. Schwab, and A.S. Davis Cobalt- and platinum-rich ferromanganese crusts and associated substrate rocks from the Marshall Islands Marine Geology 78 1988 255 283
51. J.R. Hein, A. Koschinsky, M. Bau, F.T. Manheim, J.-K. Kang, and L. Roberts Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts in the Pacific D.S. Cronan Handbook of marine mineral deposits 2000 CRC Press London 239 279
52. R.A. Hodkinson, and D.S. Cronan Regional and depth variability in the composition of cobalt-rich ferro-manganese crusts from the SOPAC area and adjacent parts of the central equatorial Pacific Marine Geology 98 1991 437 447
53. C.D. Hollister, S.A. Johnson, and P.F. Lonsdale Current-controlled abyssal sedimentation: Samoan Passage, equatorial Pacific Journal of Geology 82 1974 275 300
54. S. Honjo Fluxes of particles to the interior of the open oceans V. Ittekot P. Schaefer S. Honjo P.J. Depetus Particle flux in the oceans 1996 Wiley New York 91 154
55. W.A. Hovis, D.K. Clark, F. Anderson, R.W. Austin, W.H. Wilson, and E.T. Baker Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner system description and initial imagery Science 210 1980 60 63
56. Index to Marine and Lacustrine Geological Samples, National Geophysical Data Center of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available from: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/curator
57. Japan-SOPAC Cooperative Study on Deep Sea Mineral Resources in the South Pacific (1985-1994). Ocean resources investigation in the sea area of CCOP/SOPAC: Report on the joint basic study for the development of resources (Cook Islands: Vols. 1 and 2; Kiribati: Vols. 3, 5; Tuvalu: Vol. 4), Metal Mining Agency of Japan (unpublished)
58. K.S. Jeong, H.S. Jung, J.K. Kang, C.L. Morgan, and J.R. Hein Formation of ferromanganese crusts on northwest intertropical Pacific seamounts: electron photomicrography and microprobe chemistry Marine Geology 162 2000 541 559
59. K.S. Johnson, K.H. Coale, W.M. Berelson, and W.M. Gordon On the formation of the manganese maximum in the oxygen minimum Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60 1996 1291 1299
60. K.S. Johnson, R.M. Gordon, and K.H. Coale What controls dissolved iron concentration in the world ocean? Marine Chemistry 57 1997 137 161
61. B.B. Jorgensen, and B.P. Boudreau Diagenesis and sediment-water exchange B.P. Boudreau B.B. Jorgensen The benthic boundary layer: Transport processes and biogeochemistry 2001 Oxford University Press Oxford 211 244
62. H.-S. Jung, and C.-B. Lee Growth of diagenetic ferromanganese nodules in an oxic deep-sea sedimentary environment, northeast equatorial Pacific Marine Geology 157 1999 127 144
63. J.P. Kennett Marine geology 1982 Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ
64. G.P. Klinkhammer, and M.L. Bender The distribution of manganese in the Pacific Ocean Earth and Planetary Science Letters 46 1980 361 384
65. P.A. Knoop, R.M. Owen, and C.L. Morgan Regional variability in ferromanganese nodule composition: northeastern tropical Pacific Ocean Marine Geology 147 1998 1 12
66. A. Koschinsky, and P. Halbach Sequential leaching of marine ferromanganese precipitates: genetic implications Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 1995 5113 5132
67. W.M. Landing, and K.W. Bruland Manganese in the north Pacific Earth and Planetary Science Letters 49 1980 45 56
68. W.M. Landing, and K.W. Bruland Contrasting biogeochemistry of iron and manganese in the Pacific Ocean Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 51 1987 29 43
69. W.J. Langston Toxic effects of metals and the incidence of metal pollution in marine ecosystems P.W. Furness P.S. Rainbow Heavy metals in the marine environment 1990 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 101 122
70. S. Libes An introduction to marine biogeochemistry 1992 Wiley New York
71. X. Liu, and F. Millero The solubility of iron in seawater Marine Chemistry 77 2002 43 54
72. P.F. Lonsdale Drifts and ponds of reworked pelagic sediment in part of the Southwest Pacific Marine Geology 43 1981 153 193
73. P.F. Lonsdale, and S.M. Smith Lower insular rise hills shaped by a bottom boundary current in the mid-Pacific Marine Geology 34 1980 M19 25
74. Manheim, F. T., & Lane-Bostwick, C. M. (1989). Chemical composition of ferromanganese crusts in the world ocean: a review and comprehensive database. US Department of the Interior Geological Survey Open File Report 89-020; NOAA/MMS Marine Minerals CD-ROM, NGDC Data Set #8027. Available from: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/geology/mmdb
75. J.H. Martin, and G.A. Knauer Lateral transport of Mn in the north-east Pacific Gyre oxygen minimum Nature 314 1985 524 526
76. I.N. McCave Erosion, transport and deposition of fine-grained sediments D.A.V. Stow D.J.W. Piper Fine-grained sediments 1984 Blackwell Oxford 35 70
77. Meylan, M. A. (1978). Marine sedimentation and manganese nodule formation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Ph.D. thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI (unpublished)
78. M.A. Meylan, G.P. Glasby, P.J. Hill, B.C. McKelvey, P. Walter, and P. Stoffers Manganese crusts and nodules from the Manihiki Plateau and adjacent areas: results of the HMNZS Tui cruises Marine Mining 9 1990 43 72
79. Miller, S. (1992). Geochemistry of pelagic sediments associated with manganese nodules in the central Pacific. Ph.D. thesis, Imperial College, London (unpublished)
80. S. Miller, and D.S. Cronan Element supply to surface sediments and interrelationships with nodules along the Aitutaki-Jarvis Transect, South Pacific Journal of the Geological Society 151 1994 403 412
81. Mizuno, A., & Nakao, S. (1982). Regional data of marine geology, geophysics and manganese nodules: the Wake-Tahiti transect in the Central Pacific (GH80-1). Geological Survey of Japan, Cruise Report #18 (unpublished)
82. J.W. Moffett, and J. Ho Oxidation of cobalt and manganese via a common microbially catalyzed pathway Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60 1996 3415 3424
83. J.W. Moffett, and G.W. Zika Oxidation kinetics of Cu(I) in seawater: implications for its existence in the marine environment Marine Chemistry 13 1983 239 247
84. J.W. Moffett, and G.W. Zika Measurement of copper (I) in surface waters of the subtropical Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 52 1988 1849 1852
85. F.M. Morel, R.J. Hudson, and N.M. Price Limitation of productivity by trace metals in the sea Limnology and Oceanography 36 1991 1742 1755
86. C.L. Morgan Resource estimates of the Clarion-Clipperton manganese nodule deposits D.S. Cronan Handbook of marine mineral deposits 2000 CRC Press London 145 170
87. J.W. Murray, R.T. Barber, M.R. Roman, M.P. Bacon, and R.A. Feely Physical and biological controls on carbon cycling in the equatorial Pacific Science 266 1994 58 65
88. T. Neumann, and D. Stueben Detailed geochemical study and growth history of some ferromanganese crusts from the Tuamotu Archipelago Marine Mining 10 1991 29 48
89. A. Nishimura Sedimentation and hiatuses in the central Pacific basin: their relationship to manganese nodule formation B.H. Keating B.R. Bolton Geology and offshore mineral resources of the Central Pacific Basin 1992 Springer New York 179 203
90. S. Noriki, Y. Arashitani, M. Minakawa, K. Harada, and S. Tsunogai Vertical cycling of copper and nickel in the western north and equatorial Pacific Marine Chemistry 59 1998 211 218
91. G. Pautot, and M. Melguen Influence of deep water circulation and sea floor morphology on the abundance and grade of Central South Pacific manganese nodules J.L. Bischoff D.Z. Piper Marine geology and oceanography of the Pacific Manganese Nodule Province 1979 Plenum Press New York 621 649
92. C. Pichocki, and M. Hoffert Characteristics of Co-rich ferromanganese nodules and crusts sampled in French Polynesia Marine Geology 77 1987 109 119
93. N.B. Price, and S.E. Calvert Compositional variation in Pacific Ocean ferromanganese nodules and its relationship to sediment accumulation rates Marine Geology 9 1970 145 171
94. N.M. Price, and F.M. Morel Co-limitation of phytoplankton growth by nickel and nitrogen Limnology and Oceanography 36 1991 1071 1077
95. J.M. Prospero The atmospheric transport of particles to the ocean V. Ittekot P. Schaefer S. Honjo P.J. Depetus Particle flux in the oceans 1996 Wiley New York 18 52
96. D. Puteanus, G.P. Glasby, P. Stoffers, A. Mangini, and H. Kunzendorf Distribution, internal structure and composition of manganese crusts from seamounts east of the Teahitia-Mehetia hot spot, southwest Pacific Marine Mining 8 1989 245 266
97. J.L. Reid On the total geostrophic circulation of the Pacific Ocean Progress in Oceanography 39 1997 263 352
98. J.L. Reid, and P.F. Lonsdale On the flow of water through the Samoan Passage Journal of Physical Oceanography 4 1974 58 73
99. Reid, J. L., & Mantyla, A. W. (1994). World Ocean Data Set. Available from: http://www.odf.ucsd.edu/joa/dataset.html
100. G.I. Roden Effect of seamounts and seamount chains on ocean circulation and thermohaline structure B.H. Keating P. Fryer R. Batiza G.W. Boehlert Seamounts, islands and atolls 1987 American Geophysical Union Washington, DC 335 354
101. D. Roemmich, S. Hautala, and D. Rudnick Northward abyssal transport through the Samoan Passage and adjacent regions Journal of Geophysical Research 101 C6 1996 14039 14056
102. E.L. Rue, and K.W. Bruland Complexation of iron (III) by natural organic ligands in the central north Pacific as determined by a new competitive ligand equilibration/adsorptive cathodic stripping voltammetric method Marine Chemistry 50 1995 117 138
103. E.L. Rue, and K.W. Bruland The role of organic complexation on ambient iron chemistry in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and the response of a mesoscale iron addition experiment Limnology and Oceanography 42 1997 901 910
104. J.J. Sawlan, and J.M. Murray Trace metal remobilization in the interstitial waters of red clay and hemipelagic marine sediments Earth and Planetary Science Letters 64 1983 213 230
105. F.R. Sclater, E. Boyle, and J.M. Edmond On the marine geochemistry of nickel Earth and Planetary Science Letters 31 1976 119 128
106. S.R. Signorini, C.R. McClain, and Y. Dandonneau Mixing and phytoplankton bloom in the wake of the Marquesas Islands Geophysical Research Letters 26 1999 3121 3124
107. N.S. Skornyakova Zonal regularities in occurrence, morphology and chemistry of manganese nodules of the Pacific Ocean J.L. Bischoff D.Z. Piper Marine geology and oceanography of the Pacific Manganese Nodule Province 1979 Plenum Press New York 699 727
108. C.R. Smith, D.J. Hoover, S.E. Doan, R.H. Pope, D.J. Demaster, and F.C. Dobbs Phytodetritus at the abyssal seafloor across 10 degrees of latitude in the central equatorial Pacific Deep-Sea Research II 43 1996 1309 1338
109. R.R. Sokal, and F.J. Rohlf Biometry 2nd ed. 1981 W.H. Freeman New York
110. D.A.V. Stow Deep sea processes of sediment transport and deposition K. Pye Sediment transport and depositional processes 1994 Blackwell Oxford 257 291
111. W. Stumm, and J.J. Morgan Aquatic chemistry 3rd ed. 1996 Wiley New York
112. South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC), Suva, Fiji. Available from: http://www.sopac.org
113. W.G. Sunda Trace metal/phytoplankton interactions in the sea G. Bidoglio W. Stumm Chemistry of aquatic systems: Local and global perspectives 1994 Kluwer Amsterdam 213 247
114. W.G. Sunda Bioavailability and bioaccumulation of iron in the sea R. Turner K.A. Hunter The biogeochemistry of iron in seawater 2001 Wiley New York 41 84
115. W.G. Sunda, and S.A. Huntsman Regulation of copper concentration in the oceanic nutricline by phytoplankton use and regeneration cycles Limnology and Oceanography 40 1995 132 137
116. W.G. Sunda, and S.A. Huntsman Iron uptake and growth limitation in oceanic and coastal phytoplankton Marine Chemistry 50 1995 189 206
117. N. Takematsu, Y. Sato, and S. Okabe Factors controlling the chemical composition of marine manganese nodules and crusts Marine Chemistry 26 1989 41 56
118. Usui, A. (1992). Marine geology, geophysics and manganese nodule deposits in the southern part of the Central Pacific Basin, South Pacific (GH82-4). Geological Survey of Japan, Cruise Report #22 (unpublished)
119. Usui, A. (1994). Marine geology, geophysics and manganese nodule deposits in the Penrhyn Basin, South Pacific (GH83-3). Geological Survey of Japan, Cruise Report #23 (unpublished)
120. A. Usui, A. Nishimura, M. Tanahashi, and S. Terashima Local variability of the manganese nodule facies on small abyssal hills of the Central Pacific Basin Marine Geology 74 1987 237 275
121. A. Usui, A. Nishimura, and N. Mita Composition and growth history of surficial and buried manganese nodules in the Penrhyn Basin, southwestern Pacific Marine Geology 114 1993 133 153
122. Verlaan, P. A. (2003). Environmental controls on marine ferromanganese oxide behaviour in the Central South Pacific. Ph.D. Thesis, Imperial College, London, UK (unpublished)
123. X. Wen, E.H. De Carlo, and Y.H. Li Interelement relationships in ferromanganese crusts from the central Pacific Ocean: their implications for crust genesis Marine Geology 1997 136:277 297
124. M. Whitfield Interactions between phytoplankton and trace metals in the ocean A.J. Southward P.A. Tyler C.M. Young L.A. Furman Advances in marine biology Vol. 41 2001 Academic Press New York 1 130
125. M. Whitfield, and D.R. Turner The role of particles in regulating the composition of seawater W. Stumm Aquatic surface chemistry 1987 Wiley New York 457 493
126. Yan, C. Y., & Kroenke, L. W. (1993). A plate tectonic reconstruction of the southwest Pacific, 0-100 Ma. In W. H. Berger, L. W. Kroenke, & L. A. Mayer, Proceedings of the ocean drilling program, scientific results, Leg 130 (pp. 697-709). College Station, TX
127. J.H. Zar Biostatistical analysis 4th ed. 1999 Prentice-Hall London