Thymic Carcinoma: Is it a Separate Entity? From Molecular to Clinical Evidence

Thoracic Surgery Clinics

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 25-31

  Marx, Alexander ^a   Rieker, Ralf ^b,c   Toker, Alper ^d   Länger, Florian ^e   Ströbel, Philipp ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ERLANGEN NUREMBERG   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^d ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^e HANNOVER MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Germany)

Author keywords

Thymic carcinomas; Thymic squamous cell carcinomas; Thymomas

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; ERLOTINIB; GEFITINIB; SUNITINIB;

CANCER CLASSIFICATION; CANCER REGRESSION; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURVIVAL; CLINICAL TRIAL; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; NEUROENDOCRINE TUMOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SARCOMA; T LYMPHOCYTE; THYMOMA; THYMUS CARCINOMA;

CYCLOOXYGENASE INHIBITORS; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, NEOPLASTIC; HUMANS; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY; NEOPLASM STAGING; PROGNOSIS; PROTO-ONCOGENE PROTEINS C-KIT; THYMUS NEOPLASMS;

EID: 78149429220     PISSN: 15474127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2010.08.010     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Engels E.A., Pfeiffer R.M. Malignant thymoma in the United States: demographic patterns in incidence and associations with subsequent malignancies. Int J Cancer 2003, 105:546-551.
2. Liu H.C., Hsu W.H., Chen Y.J., et al. Primary thymic carcinoma. Ann Thorac Surg 2002, 73:1076-1081.
3. Okumura M., Miyoshi S., Fujii Y., et al. Clinical and functional significance of WHO classification on human thymic epithelial neoplasms: a study of 146 consecutive tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 2001, 25:103-110.
4. Kim B.K., Cho B.C., Choi H.J., et al. A single institutional experience of surgically resected thymic epithelial tumors over 10 years: clinical outcomes and clinicopathologic features. Oncol Rep 2008, 19:1525-1531.
5. Chen G., Marx A., Wen-Hu C., et al. New WHO histologic classification predicts prognosis of thymic epithelial tumors: a clinicopathologic study of 200 thymoma cases from China. Cancer 2002, 95:420-429.
6. Strobel P., Bauer A., Puppe B., et al. Tumor recurrence and survival in patients treated for thymomas and thymic squamous cell carcinomas: a retrospective analysis. J Clin Oncol 2004, 22:1501-1509.
7. Engel P., Marx A., Muller-Hermelink H.K. Thymic tumours in Denmark. A retrospective study of 213 cases from 1970-1993. Pathol Res Pract 1999, 195:565-570.
8. Okereke I.C., Kesler K.A., Morad M.H., et al. Prognostic indicators after surgery for thymoma. Ann Thorac Surg 2010, 89:1071-1077. [discussion: 1077-9].
9. Müller-Hermelink HK, Engel P, Kuto TT, et al. Tumours of the thymus: introduction. In: Travis MD, Brambilla E. Müller-Hermelink HK, et al, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics. Tumours of the lung, pleura, thymus and heart. Lyon (France): IARC Press; 2004. p.145-51.
10. Kirchner T., Schalke B., Buchwald J., et al. Well-differentiated thymic carcinoma. An organotypical low-grade carcinoma with relationship to cortical thymoma. Am J Surg Pathol 1992, 16:1153-1169.
11. Masaoka A., Yamakawa Y., Fujii Y. Well-differentiated thymic carcinoma: is it thymic carcinoma or not?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1999, 117:628-630.
12. Chalabreysse L., Roy P., Cordier J.F., et al. Correlation of the WHO schema for the classification of thymic epithelial neoplasms with prognosis: a retrospective study of 90 tumors. Am J Surg Pathol 2002, 26:1605-1611.
13. Hsu C.P., Chen C.Y., Chen C.L., et al. Thymic carcinoma. Ten years' experience in twenty patients. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994, 107:615-620.
14. Dorfman D.M., Shahsafaei A., Chan J.K. Thymic carcinomas, but not thymomas and carcinomas of other sites, show CD5 immunoreactivity. Am J Surg Pathol 1997, 21:936-940.
15. Suster S., Rosai J. Thymic carcinoma. A clinicopathologic study of 60 cases. Cancer 1991, 67:1025-1032.
16. Kuo T.T., Chang J.P., Lin F.J., et al. Thymic carcinomas: histopathological varieties and immunohistochemical study. Am J Surg Pathol 1990, 14:24-34.
17. Wick M.R., Scheithauer B.W., Weiland L.H., et al. Primary thymic carcinomas. Am J Surg Pathol 1982, 6:613-630.
18. Rieker R.J., Hoegel J., Morresi-Hauf A., et al. Histologic classification of thymic epithelial tumors: comparison of established classification schemes. Int J Cancer 2002, 98:900-906.
19. D'Angelillo R.M., Trodella L., Ramella S., et al. Novel prognostic groups in thymic epithelial tumors: assessment of risk and therapeutic strategy selection. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008, 71:420-427.
20. Kondo K., Yoshizawa K., Tsuyuguchi M., et al. WHO histologic classification is a prognostic indicator in thymoma. Ann Thorac Surg 2004, 77:1183-1188.
21. Kondo K., Monden Y. Therapy for thymic epithelial tumors: a clinical study of 1320 patients from Japan. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:878-884. [discussion: 884-5].
22. Gal A.A., Kornstein M.J., Cohen C., et al. Neuroendocrine tumors of the thymus: a clinicopathological and prognostic study. Ann Thorac Surg 2001, 72:1179-1182.
23. Zeiger M.A., Swartz S.E., MacGillivray D.C., et al. Thymic carcinoid in association with MEN syndromes. Am Surg 1992, 58:430-434.
24. Brown J.G., Familiari U., Papotti M., et al. Thymic basaloid carcinoma: a clinicopathologic study of 12 cases, with a general discussion of basaloid carcinoma and its relationship with adenoid cystic carcinoma. Am J Surg Pathol 2009, 33:1113-1124.
25. French C.A., Kutok J.L., Faquin W.C., et al. Midline carcinoma of children and young adults with NUT rearrangement. J Clin Oncol 2004, 22:4135-4139.
26. Inoue Y., True L.D., Martins R.G. Thymic carcinoma associated with paraneoplastic polymyositis. J Clin Oncol 2009, 27:e33-e34.
27. Azuma Y., Shiga K., Ishii R., et al. Polymyositis with atypical pathological features associated with thymic carcinoma. Intern Med 2009, 48:163-168.
28. Takahashi F., Tsuta K., Nagaoka T., et al. Successful resection of dermatomyositis associated with thymic carcinoma: report of a case. Surg Today 2008, 38:245-248.
29. Koppula B.R., Pipavath S., Lewis D.H. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) associated lymphoepithelioma-like thymic carcinoma associated with paraneoplastic syndrome of polymyositis: a rare tumor with rare association. Clin Nucl Med 2009, 34:686-688.
30. Munakata W., Ohashi K., Sakaguchi K., et al. Erythrocytosis caused by erythropoietin-producing thymic carcinoma. Int J Clin Oncol 2010, 15:220-223.
31. Tiffet O., Nicholson A.G., Ladas G., et al. A clinicopathologic study of 12 neuroendocrine tumors arising in the thymus. Chest 2003, 124:141-146.
32. Moran C.A., Suster S. Neuroendocrine carcinomas (carcinoid tumor) of the thymus. A clinicopathologic analysis of 80 cases. Am J Clin Pathol 2000, 114:100-110.
33. Wang D.Y., Chang D.B., Kuo S.H., et al. Carcinoid tumours of the thymus. Thorax 1994, 49:357-360.
34. Masaoka A., Monden Y., Nakahara K., et al. Follow-up study of thymomas with special reference to their clinical stages. Cancer 1981, 48:2485-2492.
35. Tsuchiya R., Koga K., Matsuno Y., et al. Thymic carcinoma: proposal for pathological TNM and staging. Pathol Int 1994, 44:505-512.
36. Yamakawa Y., Masaoka A., Hashimoto T., et al. A tentative tumor-node-metastasis classification of thymoma. Cancer 1991, 68:1984-1987.
37. Rajan A., Giaccone G. Treatment of advanced thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2008, 9:277-287.
38. Ogawa K., Toita T., Uno T., et al. Treatment and prognosis of thymic carcinoma: a retrospective analysis of 40 cases. Cancer 2002, 94:3115-3119.
39. Latz D., Schraube P., Oppitz U., et al. Invasive thymoma: treatment with postoperative radiation therapy. Radiology 1997, 204:859-864.
40. Greene M.A., Malias M.A. Aggressive multimodality treatment of invasive thymic carcinoma. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003, 125:434-436.
41. Loehrer P.J. Current approaches to the treatment of thymoma. Ann Med 1999, 2(Suppl 31):73-79.
42. Venuta F., Rendina E.A., Longo F., et al. Long-term outcome after multimodality treatment for stage III thymic tumors. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:1866-1872. [discussion: 1872].
43. Venuta F., Rendina E.A., Coloni G.F. Multimodality treatment of thymic tumors. Thorac Surg Clin 2009, 19:71-81.
44. Eng T.Y., Fuller C.D., Jagirdar J., et al. Thymic carcinoma: state of the art review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2004, 59:654-664.
45. Hsu H.C., Huang E.Y., Wang C.J., et al. Postoperative radiotherapy in thymic carcinoma: treatment results and prognostic factors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002, 52:801-805.
46. Mayer R., Beham-Schmid C., Groell R., et al. Radiotherapy for invasive thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Clinicopathological review. Strahlenther Onkol 1999, 175:271-278.
47. Lucchi M., Mussi A., Basolo F., et al. The multimodality treatment of thymic carcinoma. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2001, 19:566-569.
48. Jung K.J., Lee K.S., Han J., et al. Malignant thymic epithelial tumors: CT-pathologic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001, 176:433-439.
49. Lee J.D., Choe K.O., Kim S.J., et al. CT findings in primary thymic carcinoma. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1991, 15:429-433.
50. Zettl A., Strobel P., Wagner K., et al. Recurrent genetic aberrations in thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Am J Pathol 2000, 157:257-266.
51. Penzel R., Hoegel J., Schmitz W., et al. Clusters of chromosomal imbalances in thymic epithelial tumours are associated with the WHO classification and the staging system according to Masaoka. Int J Cancer 2003, 105:494-498.
52. Girard N., Shen R., Guo T., et al. Comprehensive genomic analysis reveals clinically relevant molecular distinctions between thymic carcinomas and thymomas. Clin Cancer Res 2009, 15:6790-6799.
53. Ehemann V., Kern M.A., Breinig M., et al. Establishment, characterization and drug sensitivity testing in primary cultures of human thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Int J Cancer 2008, 122:2719-2725.
54. Müller-Hermelink HK, Strobel P, Zettl A, et al. Metastases to thymus and anterior mediastinum. In: Travis MD, Brambilla E. Müller-Hermelink HK, et al, editors. World Health Organization classification of tumours. Pathology and genetics. Tumours of the lung, pleura, thymus and heart. Lyon (France): IARC Press; 2004. p. 247.
55. Chen F.F., Yan J.J., Jin Y.T., et al. Detection of bcl-2 and p53 in thymoma: expression of bcl-2 as a reliable marker of tumor aggressiveness. Hum Pathol 1996, 27:1089-1092.
56. Hirabayashi H., Fujii Y., Sakaguchi M., et al. p16INK4, pRB, p53 and cyclin D1 expression and hypermethylation of CDKN2 gene in thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Int J Cancer 1997, 73:639-644.
57. Tateyama H., Eimoto T., Tada T., et al. p53 protein expression and p53 gene mutation in thymic epithelial tumors. An immunohistochemical and DNA sequencing study. Am J Clin Pathol 1995, 104:375-381.
58. Nonaka D., Henley J.D., Chiriboga L., et al. Diagnostic utility of thymic epithelial markers CD205 (DEC205) and Foxn1 in thymic epithelial neoplasms. Am J Surg Pathol 2007, 31:1038-1044.
59. Bleul C.C., Corbeaux T., Reuter A., et al. Formation of a functional thymus initiated by a postnatal epithelial progenitor cell. Nature 2006, 441:992-996.
60. Henley J.D., Cummings O.W., Loehrer P.J. Tyrosine kinase receptor expression in thymomas. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2004, 130:222-224.
61. Henley J.D., Koukoulis G.K., Loehrer P.J. Epidermal growth factor receptor expression in invasive thymoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2002, 128:167-170.
62. Ionescu D.N., Sasatomi E., Cieply K., et al. Protein expression and gene amplification of epidermal growth factor receptor in thymomas. Cancer 2005, 103:630-636.
63. Strobel P., Knop S., Einsele H., et al. Therapy-relevant mutations of receptor tyrosine kinases in malignant thymomas and thymic carcinomas: a therapeutic perspective. Verh Dtsch Ges Pathol 2007, 91:177-186.
64. Yoh K., Nishiwaki Y., Ishii G., et al. Mutational status of EGFR and KIT in thymoma and thymic carcinoma. Lung Cancer 2008, 62:316-320.
65. Meister M., Schirmacher P., Dienemann H., et al. Mutational status of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene in thymomas and thymic carcinomas. Cancer Lett 2007, 248:186-191.
66. Strobel P., Bargou R., Wolff A., et al. Sunitinib in metastatic thymic carcinomas: laboratory findings and initial clinical experience. Br J Cancer 2010, 103(2):196-200.
67. Christodoulou C., Murray S., Dahabreh J., et al. Response of malignant thymoma to erlotinib. Ann Oncol 2008, 19:1361-1362.
68. Farina G., Garassino M.C., Gambacorta M., et al. Response of thymoma to cetuximab. Lancet Oncol 2007, 8:449-450.
69. Palmieri G., Marino M., Salvatore M., et al. Cetuximab is an active treatment of metastatic and chemorefractory thymoma. Front Biosci 2007, 12:757-761.
70. Kurup A., Burns M., Dropcho S., et al. Phase II study of gefitinib treatment in advanced thymic malignancies. J Clin Oncol 2005, 23(16S). 7068.
71. Chen Z., Zhang X., Li M., et al. Simultaneously targeting epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase and cyclooxygenase-2, an efficient approach to inhibition of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin Cancer Res 2004, 10:5930-5939.
72. Fosslien E. Biochemistry of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitors and molecular pathology of COX-2 in neoplasia. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2000, 37:431-502.
73. Rieker R.J., Joos S., Mechtersheimer G., et al. COX-2 upregulation in thymomas and thymic carcinomas. Int J Cancer 2006, 119:2063-2070.
74. Pan C.C., Chen P.C., Chiang H. KIT (CD117) is frequently overexpressed in thymic carcinomas but is absent in thymomas. J Pathol 2004, 202:375-381.
75. Tsuchida M., Umezu H., Hashimoto T., et al. Absence of gene mutations in KIT-positive thymic epithelial tumors. Lung Cancer 2008, 62:321-325.
76. Strobel P., Hartmann M., Jakob A., et al. Thymic carcinoma with overexpression of mutated KIT and the response to imatinib. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:2625-2626.
77. Bisagni G., Rossi G., Cavazza A., et al. Long lasting response to the multikinase inhibitor bay 43-9006 (Sorafenib) in a heavily pretreated metastatic thymic carcinoma. J Thorac Oncol 2009, 4:773-775.
78. Giaccone G., Rajan A., Ruijter R., et al. Imatinib mesylate in patients with WHO B3 thymomas and thymic carcinomas. J Thorac Oncol 2009, 4:1270-1273.
79. Salter J., Lewis D., Yiannoutsos C., et al. Imatinib for the treatment of thymic carcinoma. J Clin Oncol 2008, 2615S. 8116.
80. Strobel P, Bargou R, Wolff A, et al. Sunitinib in metastatic thymic carcinomas: laboratory findings and initial clinical experience. Br J Cancer 2010;103:196-200.