Cardiovascular risk factors and prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal disease

Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 11, Issue 16, 2010, Pages 2687-2698

  Rodriguez Iturbe, Bernardo ^a   Correa Rotter, Ricardo ^b  

^a HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO DE MARACAIBO   (Venezuela)

^b INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE CIENCIAS MÉDICAS Y NUTRICIÓN SALVADOR ZUBIRÁN   (Mexico)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Lifestyle; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ALCOHOL; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; CALCITRIOL; DOXERCALCIFEROL; HEMOGLOBIN; HOMOCYSTEINE; N(G),N(G) DIMETHYLARGININE; NOVEL ERYTHROPOIESIS STIMULATING PROTEIN; PARACALCITOL; PLACEBO; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DERIVATIVE;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANEMIA; ARTERY CALCIFICATION; BONE METABOLISM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE HYPERTROPHY; HEMOGLOBIN BLOOD LEVEL; HUMAN; HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA; HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MALNUTRITION; METABOLIC DISORDER; MINERAL METABOLISM; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASE; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; SMOKING CESSATION; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SODIUM RESTRICTION; STROKE; SYSTOLIC DYSFUNCTION; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; WEIGHT CONTROL;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CHRONIC DISEASE; DIET, SODIUM-RESTRICTED; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY DISEASES; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; LIFE STYLE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING CESSATION; WEIGHT LOSS;

EID: 78049411918     PISSN: 14656566     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14656561003796570     Document Type: Review

References (127)

1. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, et al. Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 2006;367:1747-57
2. Anderson GF, Chu E. Expanding priorities-confronting chronic disease in countries with low income. N Engl J Med 2007;356:209-11
3. McClellan WM, Langston RD, Presley R. Medicare patients with cardiovascular disease have a high prevalence of chronic kidney disease and a high rate of progression to end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:1912-19
4. Elsayed EF, Tighiouart H, Griffith J, et al. Cardiovascular disease and subsequent kidney disease. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1130-6
5. Knauf F, Aronson PS. ESRD as a window into America's cost crisis in health care. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2093-7
6. El Nahas M, Bello AK. Chronic kidney disease: the global challenge. Lancet 2005;365:331-40
7. Clase CM, Garg AX, Kiberd BA. Prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate in nondiabetic americans: third national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES III). J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:1338-49
8. Coresh J, Selvin E, Stevens LA, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA 2007;298:2038-47
9. Coresh J, Eknoyan G, Levey AS. Estimating the prevalence of low glomerular filtration rate requires attention to the creatinine assay calibration. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:2811-12; reply by authors 2812-16
10. Xue JL, Ma JZ, Louis TA, et al. Forecast of the number of patients with end-stage renal disease in the United States to the year 2010. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001;12:2753-8
11. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, et al. CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration). A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med 2009;150:604-12
12. Glassock RJ, Winearls C. Diagnosing chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2010;19:123-8
13. Jones CA, McQuiln GM, Kusek JW, et al. Serum creatinine levels in the US population: third national health examination survey. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;32:992-9
14. Wen CP, Cheng TY, Tsai MK, et al. All-cause mortality attributable to chronic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study based on 462,293 adults in Taiwan. Lancet 2008;371:2173-82
15. Tonelli M, Wiebe N, Culleton B, et al. Chronic kidney disease and mortality risk: a systematic review. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2034-47
16. Keith DS, Nichols DA, Guillion CM, et al. Longitudinal follow-up and outcomes among a population with chronic kidney disease in a large managed care organization. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:659-3
17. De LS, Chan T, Stevens P, et al. Identifying patients with chronic kidney disease from general practice computer records. Fam Pract 2005;22:234-41
18. Levin A. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease prior to dialysis. Semin Dial 2003;16:101-5
19. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney Int 1995;47:186-92
20. Foley RN, Herzog CA, Collins AJ. Blood pressure and long-term mortality in United States hemodialysis patients: USRDS Wave 3 and 4 study. Kidney Int 2002;62:1784-90
21. Foley RN, Herzog CA, Collins AJ. Smoking and cardiovascular outcomes in dialysis patients: the United States Renal Data System Wave 2 study. Kidney Int 2003;63:462-7
22. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS. Epidemiology of cardiac disease in dialysis patients. Semin Nephrol 1999;12:69-76
23. Schffrin EL, Lipman ML, Mann JEF. Chronic kidney disease. Effects on the cardiovascular system. Circulation 2007;116:85-97
24. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic renal disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1296-305
25. Jungers P, Massy ZA, Khoa TN, et al. Incidence and risk factors of atherosclerotic cardiovascular accidents in predialysis chronic renal failure patients: a prospective study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1997;12:2597-602
26. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Ibrahim H, et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular outcomes in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:47-55 (Pubitemid 36044403)
27. Levin A, Djurdjev G, Barrett B, et al. Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease: getting to the heart of the matter. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;38:1398-407
28. Iguchi Y, Kimura K, Kobayashi K, et al. Relation of atrial fibrillation to glomerular filtration rate. Am J Cardiol 2008;102:1056-9
29. Auer J, Lamm G, Weber T, et al. Renal function is associated with risk of atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. Can J Cardiol 2007;23:859-63
30. Böhm M, Thoenes M, Neuberger HR, et al. Atrial fibrillation and heart rate independently correlate to microalbuminuria in hypertensive patients. Eur Heart J 2009;30:1364-71
31. Go AS, Fang MC, Udaltsova N, et al. Impact of proteinuria and glomerular filtration rate on risk of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation: the anticoagulation and risk factors in atrial fibrillation (ATRIA) study. Circulation 2009;119:1363-9
32. Herzog CA, Mangrum JM, Passman R. Sudden cardiac death and dialysis patients. Semin Dial 2008;21:300-7
33. Turner S, Onalan O, Bickle B. Prevention of death in chronic kidney disease: the role of implantable cardioverter defibrillators. CANNT J 2009;19:29-36
34. Cuculich PS, Sánchez JM, Kerzner R, et al. Poor prognosis for patients with chronic kidney disease despite ICD therapy for the primary prevention of sudden death. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2007;30:207-13
35. Korantzopoulos P, Liu T, Li L, et al. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy in chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis. Europace 2009;11:1469-75
36. Sakhuja R, Keebler M, Lai TS, et al. Meta-analysis of mortality in dialysis patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator. Am J Cardiol 2009;103:735-41. [Epub ahead ofprint]
37. Baigent C, Landray M. Which cardiovascular risk factors matter in chronic kidney disease? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:9-11
38. Shlipack MG, Fried LF, Cushman M, et al. Cardiovascular mortality risk in chronic kidney disease: comparison of traditional and novel risk factors. JAMA 2005;293:1737-45
39. Rysz J, Aronow WS, Stolarek RS, et al. Nephroprotective and clinical potential of statins in dialyzed patients. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2009;13:541-50
40. Weiner DE, Tighiouart H, Elsayed EF, et al. The relationship between non-traditional risk factors and outcomes in individuals with stage 3 to 4 CKD. Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:212-23
41. Kazmi WH, Kausz AT, Khan S, et al. Anemia: an early complication of chronic renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;38:803-12
42. Weiner DE, Tighouart H, Vlagopoulos PT, et al. Effects of anemia and left ventricular hypertrophy on cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:1803-10
43. Ofsthun N, Labrecque J, Lacson E, et al. The effects of higher hemoglobin levels on mortality and hospitalization in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2003;63:1908-14
44. Portoles J, Lopez-Gomez JM, Aljama P, MAR Study Group. A prospective multicentre study of the role of anaemia as a risk factor in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2007;22:500-7
45. Regidor DL, Kopple JD, Kovesky CP, et al. Associations between changes in hemoglobin and administered erythropoioiesis-stimulating agent and survival in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:181-91
46. Besarab A, Bolton WK, Browne JK, et al. The effects of normal as compared with low hematocrit values in patients with cardiac disease who are receiving hemodialysis and epoietin. N Engl J Med 1998;339:584-90
47. Drueke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, et al. Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2071-84
48. Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, et al. Correction of anemia with Epoetin alpha in chronic renal disease. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2085-98
49. Locatelli F, Covic A, Eckardt KU, et al. ERA-EDTA ERBP Advisory Board: Anaemia management in patients with chronic kidney disease: a position statement by the Anaemia Working Group of European Renal Best Practice (ERBP). Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009;24:348-54
50. Pfeffer MA, Burdmann EA, Chen CY, et al. Trial of darbepoietin alfa in Type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2009;361:2019-32
51. Martin de Francisco AL, Aljama P, Arias M, et al. Corrección de la anemia en pacientes diabéticos com enfermedad renal crónica sin tratamiento sustitutivo: enseñanzas del estudiom TREAT. Nefrologia 2010;30:15-20
52. KDOQI clinical practice guideline and clinical practice recommendations for anemia in chronic kidney disease. 2007 update of hemoglobin target. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;50:471-530
53. Deved V, Poyah P, James MT, et al. Ascorbic acid for anemia management in hemodialysis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;54:1089-97
54. Block GA, Hulbert-Shearon TE, Levin NW, et al. Association of serum phosphorus and calciumxphosphorus product with mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients: a national study. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;31:607-17
55. Ganesh SK, Stack AG, Levin NW, et al. Association of elevated serum PO(4), Ca x PO(4) product and parathyroid hormone with cardiac mortality risk in chronic hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001;12:2131-8
56. Kestenbaum B, Sampson JN, Rudser KD, et al. Serum phosphate levels and mortality risk among people with chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:520-8
57. Kidney Disease. Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl 2009;13(Suppl 1):1-130
58. Dhingra R, Sullivan LM, Fox CS, et al. Relations of serum phosphorus and calcium levels to the incidence of cardiovascular disease in the community. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:879-85
59. Raggi P, Boulay A, Chasan-Taber S, et al. a link between end-stage renal disease and cardiovascular disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;39:695-701
60. Suki W, Zabaneh R, Cangiano JL, et al. Effects of sevelamer and calcium-based phosphate binders on mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2007;72:1130-7
61. Qunibi W, Moustafa M, Muenz LR, et al. A 1-year randomized trial of calcium acetate vs. sevelamer on progression of coronary artery calcification in hemodialysis patients with comparable lipid control: the Calcium Acetate Renagel Evaluation-2 (CARE-2). Am J Kidney Dis 2008;51:952-65
62. Navaneethan SD, Palmer SC, Craig JC, et al. Benefits and harms of phosphate binders in CKD: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;54:619-37
63. Chertow G, Pupim L, Block G, et al. Evaluation of cinacalcet therapy to lower cardiovascular events (EVOLVE): rationale and design overview. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;2:898-905
64. Vaziri ND, Rodriguez-Iturbe B. Mechanisms of disease: oxidative stress and inflammation in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2006;2:582-93
65. Ross R Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 1999;340:115-26
66. Goldstein SL, Leung JC, Silverstein DM. Pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines in chronic pediatric dialysis patients: effect of aspirin. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;1:979-86
67. Valkonen VP, Päivä H, Salonen JT, et al. Risk of acute coronary events and concentration of asymmetrical methylarginine. Lancet 2001;358:2127-8
68. Fliser D, Kronenberg F, Kielstein JT, et al. Asymmetrical dimethylarginine and the progression of chronic kidney disease: the mild to moderate kidney disease study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2456-61
69. Zoccali C, Bode-Böger S, Mallamaci F, et al. Plasma concentrations of asymmetrical dimethylarginine and mortality in patients with end-stage renal disease: a prospective study. Lancet 2001;358:2113-17
70. Drexler H, Zeiher AM, Meinzer K, et al. Correction of endothelial dysfunction in coronary microcirculation of hypercholesterolaemic patients by L-arginine. Lancet 1991;338:1546-50
71. Lerman A, Burnett JC Jr, Higano ST, et al. Long-term L-arginine supplementation improves small-vessel coronary endothelial function in humans. Circulation 1998;97:2123-8
72. Boaz M, Smetana S, Weinstein T, et al. Secondary prevention with antioxidants of cardiovascular disease in endstage renal disease (SPACE): randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2000;356:1213-18
73. Tepel M, van der Giet M, Statz M, et al. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 2003;107:992-5
74. Homocysteine studies collaboration study. Homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke. JAMA 2002;288:2015-22
75. Mallamaci F, Zoccali C, Tripepi G, et al.; on behalf of the CREED Investigators. Hyperhomocysteinemia predicts cardiovascular outcomes in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2002;61:609-14
76. Menon V, Sarnak MJ, Greene T, et al. Relationship between homocysteine and mortality in chronic kidney disease. Circulation 2006;113:1572-7
77. Suliman ME, Stenvinkel P, Bárány P, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia and its relationship to cardiovascular disease in ESRD: influence of hypoalbuminemia, malnutrition, inflammation, and diabetes mellitus. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;41(3 Suppl 1):89-95
78. Levin A, Li YC. Vitamin D and its analogues: do they protect against cardiovascular disease in patients with kidney disease? Kidney Int 2005;68:1973-81
79. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Tenderich G, et al. Low vitamin D status: a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure? J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:105-12
80. Freundlich M, Quiroz Y, Zhang Z, et al. Suppression of renin-angiotensin gene expression in the kidney by paricalcitol. Kidney Int 2008;74:1394-2
81. Stubbs JR, Idiculla A, Slusser J, et al. Cholecalciferol supplementation alters calcitriol-responsive monocyte proteins and decreases inflammatory cytokines in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2010;21:353-61
82. Levin A. The need for optimal and coordinated management of CKD. Kidney Int 2005;68(Suppl 99):7-10
83. Valderrabano F, Golper T, Muirhead N, et al. Chronic kidney disease: why is current management uncoordinated and suboptimal. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001;16(Suppl 7):61-4
84. Abboud H, Henrich WL. Clinical practice. Stage IV chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med 2010;362:56-65
85. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Garćia-Garćia G. Pathophysiology and treatment of CKD. Hypertension and dyslipidemia in the pathophysiology of chronic kidney disease. Arch Med Sci 2009;5(Suppl 3A):395-414
86. Riegersperger M, Sunder-Plassmann G. How to prevent progression to end stage renal disease. Ren Care 2007;33:105-7
87. Walker DB, Walker TJ, Jacobson TA. Chronic kidney disease and statins: improving cardiovascular outcomes. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2009;11:301-8
88. Palmer SC, McGregor DO, Craig JC, et al. Vitamin D compounds for people with chronic kidney disease requiring dialysis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009;4:CD005633
89. Chauhan V, Vaid M. Dyslipidemia in chronic kidney disease: managing a high-risk combination. Postgrad Med 2009;121:54-61
90. Williamson DF, Vinicor F, Bowman BA, Centers for Disease Control And Prevention Primary Prevention Working Group. Primary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by lifestyle intervention: implications for health policy. Ann Intern Med 2004;140:951-7
91. World Health Organization. Obesity and Overweight. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/fact-sheets/fs311/en/index.html [Last accessed 7 April 2010]
92. Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, et al. Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet 2009;373:1083-96
93. Morales E, Valero MA, Leon M, et al. Beneficial effects of weight loss in overweight patients with chronic proteinuric nephropathies. Am J Kidney Dis 2003;41:319-27
94. Navaneethan SD, Yehnert H, Moustarah F, et al. Weight loss interventions in chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:1565-74
95. Leavy SD, Strawderman RL, Jones CA, et al. Simple nutritional indicators as independent predictors of mortality in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 1998;31:997-1006
96. Kopple JD, Zhu X, Lew NL, et al. Body weight-for-height relationships predict mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 1999;56:1136-48
97. Abbott KC, Glanton CW, Trespalacios FC, et al. Body mass index, dialysis modality and survival: analysis of the United States Data System Dialysis Morbidity and Mortality Wave II Study. Kidney Int 2004;65:597-605
98. Kalantar-Zadeh, Block G, Humphreys MH, et al. Reverse epidemiology of cardiovascular disease risk factors in maintenance dialysis. Kidney Int 2003;63:793-808
99. Knight EL, Stampfer MJ, Rimm EB, et al. Moderate alcohol intake and renal function decline in women: a prospective study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:1549-54
100. Van Thiel DH, Williams WD Jr, Gavaler JS, et al. Ethanol-its nephrotoxic effect in the rat. Am J Pathol 1977;89:67-83
101. Perneger TV, Whelton PK, Puddey IB, et al. Risk of endstage renal disease associated with alcohol consumption. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:1275-81
102. Ritz E, Schwenger V. Lifestyle modification and progressive renal failure. Nephrology 2005;10:387-92
103. Pinto-Sietsma SJ, Mulder J, Janssen WM. Smoking is related to albuminuria and abnormal renal function in nondiabetic persons. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:585-91
104. Mimran A, Ribstein J, Ducailar G, et al. Albuminuria in normal and essential hypertension. J Diabetes Complications 1994;8:150-6
105. Kasiske BL, Linger D. Cigarette smoking in renal transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000;11:753-9
106. Bleyer AJ, Shemanski LR, Burke GL, et al. Tobacco, hypertension, and vascular disease: risk factors for renal functional decline in an older population. Kidney Int 2000;57:2072-9
107. Goetz FC, Jacobs DR Jr, Chavers B, et al. Risk factors for kidney damage in the adult population of Wadena, Minnesota. A prospective study. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:91-102
108. He FJ, Macgregor GA. A comprehensive review on salt and health and current experience of worldwide salt reduction programmes. J Hum Hypertens 2008;23:363-84
109. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2002. Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. 2002. Available from: www.who.int/whr/2002/en/[Last accessed 7 April 2010]
110. Palar K, Sturm R. Potential societal savings from reduced sodium consumption in the US adult population. Am J Health Promot 2009;24:49-57
111. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2010;362:590-9
112. Rodriguez-Iturbe B, Romero F, Johnson RJ. Pathophysiologic mechanisms of salt-dependent hypertension. Am J Kidney Dis 2007;50:655-72
113. Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Kandala N-B, et al. Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. Br Med J 2009;339:b4567
114. Krikken JA, Laverman GD, Navis G, et al. Benefits of dietary sodium restriction in the management of chronic kidney disease. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2009;18:531-8
115. Segura J, Ruilope LM. Should diuretics always be included as initial antihypertensive management in early-stage CKD? Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2009;18:392-6
116. Physical activity trends-United States, 1990-1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001;50:166-9
117. Lamonte MJ, Yanowitz FG. Aerobic exercise for lowering blood pressure: a metaanalysis. Clin J Sport Med 2002;12:407
118. Cukor D, Cohen SD, Peterson RA, et al. Psychosocial aspects of chronic disease: ESRD as a paradigmatic illness. J Am Soc Nephrol 2007;18:3042-55
119. Cohen SD, Sharma T, Acquaviva K, et al. Social support and chronic kidney disease: an update. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 2007;14:335-44
120. Lii YC, Tsay SL, Wang TJ. Group intervention to improve quality of life in haemodialysis patients. J Clin Nurs 2007;16:268-75
121. Levin A. Predicting outcomes in CKD: the importance of perspectives, populations and practices. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2009;24:1724-6
122. Ruilope LM, Segura J. The importance of integrated risk management when treating patients with hypertension: benefits of angiotensin II receptor antagonist therapy. Clin Exp Hypertens 2008;30:397-414
123. Schwedt E, Solá L, Ŕios PG, et al. Improving the management of chronic kidney disease in uruguay: a national renal healthcare program. Nephron Clin Pract 2009;114:c47-59
124. Beaulieu M, Levin A. Analysis of multidisciplinary care models and interface with primary care in management of chronic kidney disease. Semin Nephrol 2009;29:467-74
125. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Coresh J. Conceptual model of CKD: applications and implications. Am J Kidney Dis 2009;53(Suppl 3):S4-16
126. Stevens PE, O'Donoghue DJ. The UK model for system redesign and chronic kidney disease services. Semin Nephrol 2009;29:475-82
127. World Health Organization. 2008-2013 Action Plan for Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases. 2008, p1-p42. Accessed April 7, 2010 from http://www.who.int/nmh/publications/2009/9789241597418-eng. pdf