Tuberculosis case-contact research in endemic tropical settings: Design, conduct, and relevance to other infectious diseases

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 10, Issue 10, 2010, Pages 723-732

  Hill, Philip C ^a   Ota, Martin OC ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

^b MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL LABORATORIES   (Gambia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CASE CONTROL STUDY; COHORT ANALYSIS; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; ENDEMIC DISEASE; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; INFORMATION PROCESSING; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MENINGOCOCCOSIS; PNEUMOCOCCAL INFECTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITATIVE RESEARCH; REVIEW; TUBERCULOSIS; CONTACT EXAMINATION; ETHICS; FAMILY HEALTH; LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS; PROCEDURES; TRANSMISSION;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; CONTACT TRACING; ENDEMIC DISEASES; FAMILY HEALTH; HUMANS; SPECIMEN HANDLING; TUBERCULOSIS;

EID: 77957152689     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70164-X     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Frost WH Risk of persons in familial contact with pulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Public Health Nations Health 1933, 23:426-432.
2. McPhedran FM, Opie EL The spread of tuberculosis in families. Am J Hyg 1935, 22:565-643.
3. Kaufmann SH, Parida SK Tuberculosis in Africa: learning from pathogenesis for biomarker identification. Cell Host Microbe 2008, 4:219-228.
4. Fennelly KP, Martyny JW, Fulton KE, Orme IM, Cave DM, Heifets LB Cough-generated aerosols of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: a new method to study infectiousness. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004, 169:604-609.
5. Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Large-scale evaluation of enzyme-linked immunospot assay and skin test for diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection against a gradient of exposure in The Gambia. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38:966-973.
6. Jackson-Sillah D, Hill PC, Fox A, et al. Screening for tuberculosis among 2381 household contacts of sputum-smear-positive cases in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007, 101:594-601.
7. Adegbola RA, Hill P, Baldeh I, et al. Surveillance of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in The Gambia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003, 7:390-393.
8. Rathman G, Sillah J, Hill PC, et al. Clinical and radiological presentation of 340 adults with smear-positive tuberculosis in The Gambia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2003, 7:942-947.
9. de Jong BC, Antonio M, Awine T, et al. Use of spoligotyping and large sequence polymorphisms to study the population structure of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in a cohort study of consecutive smear-positive tuberculosis cases in The Gambia. J Clin Microbiol 2009, 47:994-1001.
10. Sutherland JS, Adetifa IM, Hill PC, Adegbola RA, Ota MO Pattern and diversity of cytokine production differentiates between Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and disease. Eur J Immunol 2009, 39:723-729.
11. Lienhardt C, Fielding K, Sillah JS, et al. Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: a case-control study in three countries in West Africa. Int J Epidemiol 2005, 34:914-923.
12. Hill PC, Jackson-Sillah D, Donkor SA, Otu J, Adegbola RA, Lienhardt C Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control study in The Gambia. BMC Public Health 2006, 6:156.
13. Lienhardt C, Sillah J, Fielding K, et al. Risk factors for tuberculosis infection in children in contact with infectious tuberculosis cases in the Gambia, West Africa. Pediatrics 2003, 111:e608-e614.
14. Hill PC, Stevens W, Hill S, et al. Risk factors for defaulting from tuberculosis treatment: a prospective cohort study of 301 cases in the Gambia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2005, 9:1349-1354.
15. Rouillon A, Perdrizet S, Parrot R Transmission of tubercle bacilli: the effects of chemotherapy. Tubercle 1976, 57:275-299.
16. Hill PC, Jackson-Sillah DJ, Fox A, et al. Incidence of tuberculosis and the predictive value of ELISPOT and Mantoux tests in Gambian case contacts. PLoS One 2008, 3:e1379.
17. Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Longitudinal assessment of an ELISPOT test for Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e192.
18. Pai M, Joshi R, Dogra S, et al. T-cell assay conversions and reversions among household contacts of tuberculosis patients in rural India. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2009, 13:84-92.
19. Guwatudde D, Nakakeeto M, Jones-Lopez EC, et al. Tuberculosis in household contacts of infectious cases in Kampala, Uganda. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 158:887-898.
20. Aiken AM, Hill PC, Fox A, et al. Reversion of the ELISPOT test after treatment in Gambian tuberculosis cases. BMC Infect Dis 2006, 6:66.
21. Whalen CC, Chiunda A, Zalwango S, et al. Immune correlates of acute Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in household contacts in Kampala, Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006, 75:55-61.
22. de Jong BC, Hill PC, Aiken A, et al. Progression to active tuberculosis, but not transmission, varies by Mycobacterium tuberculosis lineage in The Gambia. J Infect Dis 2008, 198:1037-1043.
23. Jasmer RM, Saukkonen JJ, Blumberg HM, et al. Short-course rifampin and pyrazinamide compared with isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection: a multicenter clinical trial. Ann Intern Med 2002, 137:640-647.
24. Eastwood SV, Hill PC A gender-focused qualitative study of barriers to accessing tuberculosis treatment in The Gambia, West Africa. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:70-75.
25. Harper M, Ahmadu FA, Ogden JA, McAdam KP, Lienhardt C Identifying the determinants of tuberculosis control in resource-poor countries: insights from a qualitative study in The Gambia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003, 97:506-510.
26. Hill PC, Brookes RH, Fox A, et al. Surprisingly high specificity of the PPD skin test for M. tuberculosis infection from recent exposure in The Gambia. PLoS One 2006, 1:e68.
27. Brailey M Mortality in the children of tuberculosis households. Am J Public Nations Health 1940, 30:816-823.
28. Shaw JB, Wynn-Williams N Infectivity of pulmonary tuberculosis in relation to sputum status. Am Rev Tuberc 1954, 69:724-732.
29. de Jong BC, Hill PC, Brookes RH, et al. Mycobacterium africanum elicits an attenuated T cell response to early secreted antigenic target, 6 kDa, in patients with tuberculosis and their household contacts. J Infect Dis 2006, 193:1279-1286.
30. Adetifa IM, Hill PC, Jeffries DJ, et al. Haematological values from a Gambian cohort-possible reference range for a West African population. Int J Lab Hematol 2008, 31:615-622.
31. Hill PC, Jackson-Sillah D, Fox A, et al. ESAT-6/CFP-10 fusion protein and peptides for optimal diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by ex vivo enzyme-linked immunospot assay in the Gambia. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:2070-2074.
32. Cehovin A, Cliff JM, Hill PC, Brookes RH, Dockrell HM Extended culture enhances sensitivity of a gamma interferon assay for latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007, 14:796-798.
33. Lienhardt C, Azzurri A, Amedei A, et al. Active tuberculosis in Africa is associated with reduced Th1 and increased Th2 activity in vivo. Eur J Immunol 2002, 32:1605-1613.
34. Gopinath K, Singh S Urine as an adjunct specimen for the diagnosis of active pulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Infect Dis 2009, 13:374-379.
35. Burl S, Hill PC, Jeffries DJ, et al. FOXP3 gene expression in a tuberculosis case contact study. Clin Exp Immunol 2007, 149:117-122.
36. Wassie L, Demissie A, Aseffa A, et al. Ex vivo cytokine mRNA levels correlate with changing clinical status of ethiopian TB patients and their contacts over time. PLoS One 2008, 3:e1522.
37. Bellamy R, Beyers N, McAdam KP, et al. Genetic susceptibility to tuberculosis in Africans: a genome-wide scan. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000, 97:8005-8009.
38. Olesen R, Wejse C, Velez DR, et al. DC-SIGN (CD209), pentraxin 3 and vitamin D receptor gene variants associate with pulmonary tuberculosis risk in West Africans. Genes Immunol 2007, 8:456-467.
39. Crampin AC, Mwinuka V, Malema SS, Glynn JR, Fine PE Field-based random sampling without a sampling frame: control selection for a case-control study in rural Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001, 95:481-483.
40. de Jong BC, Hill PC, Aiken A, et al. Clinical presentation and outcome of tuberculosis patients infected by M. africanum versus M. tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007, 11:450-456.
41. Floyd S, Ponnighaus JM, Bliss L, et al. BCG scars in northern Malawi: sensitivity and repeatability of scar reading, and factors affecting scar size. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2000, 4:1133-1142.
42. Sterne JA, Fine PE, Ponnighaus JM, Sibanda F, Munthali M, Glynn JR Does bacille Calmette-Guerin scar size have implications for protection against tuberculosis or leprosy?. Tuber Lung Dis 1996, 77:117-123.
43. Zodpey SP, Shrikhande SN, Kulkarni SW, Maldhure BR Scar size and effectiveness of Bacillus Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccination in the prevention of tuberculosis and leprosy: a case-control study. Indian J Public Health 2007, 51:184-189.
44. Pakasi TA, Karyadi E, Wibowo Y, et al. Vitamin A deficiency and other factors associated with severe tuberculosis in Timor and Rote Islands, East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. Eur J Clin Nutr 2009, 63:1130-1135.
45. Chocano-Bedoya P, Ronnenberg AG Vitamin D and tuberculosis. Nutr Rev 2009, 67:289-293.
46. Zhang DR Determination of zinc, copper, iron and zinc/copper ratio in the hair of active pulmonary tuberculosis patients [in Chinese]. Zhonghua Jie He He Hu Xi Za Zhi 1991, 14:170-172. 192.
47. Gibson RS, Gibson IL The interpretation of human hair trace element concentrations. Sci Total Environ 1984, 39:93-101.
48. Szot A, Jacobson FL, Munn S, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of chest X-rays acquired using a digital camera for low-cost teleradiology. Int J Med Inform 2004, 73:65-73.
49. Menzies R Interpretation of repeated tuberculin tests. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999, 159:15-21.
50. van Zyl-Smit RN, Pai M, Peprah K, et al. Within-subject variability and boosting of T-cell interferon-gamma responses after tuberculin skin testing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009, 180:49-58.
51. Veerapathran A, Dakshinamoorthy G, Gnanasekar M, Reddy MV, Kalyanasundaram R Evaluation of Wuchereria bancrofti GST as a vaccine candidate for lymphatic filariasis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2009, 3:e457.
52. Hill PC, Jeffries DJ, Brookes RH, et al. Using ELISPOT to expose false positive skin test conversion in tuberculosis contacts. PLoS One 2007, 2:e183.
53. Diaz R, Kremer K, de Haas PE, et al. Molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis in Cuba outside of Havana, July 1994-June 1995: utility of spoligotyping versus IS6110 restriction fragment length polymorphism. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1998, 2:743-750.
54. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Hesseling AC, et al. A refined symptom-based approach to diagnose pulmonary tuberculosis in children. Pediatrics 2006, 118:e1350-e1359.
55. Guidance for National Tuberculosis Programmes on the management of tuberculosis in children. Chapter 1: introduction and diagnosis of tuberculosis in children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006, 10:1091-1097. Stop TB Partnership Childhood TB Subgroup.
56. Hesseling AC, Schaaf HS, Gie RP, Starke JR, Beyers N A critical review of diagnostic approaches used in the diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2002, 6:1038-1045.
57. Kruk A, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, Marais BJ Symptom-based screening of child tuberculosis contacts: improved feasibility in resource-limited settings. Pediatrics 2008, 121:e1646-e1652.
58. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, et al. The natural history of childhood intra-thoracic tuberculosis: a critical review of literature from the pre-chemotherapy era. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:392-402.
59. Marais BJ, Gie RP, Schaaf HS, Beyers N, Donald PR, Starke JR Childhood pulmonary tuberculosis: old wisdom and new challenges. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006, 173:1078-1090.
60. Jeffries DJ, Donkor S, Brookes RH, Fox A, Hill PC Design and implementation of relational databases relevant to the diverse needs of a tuberculosis case contact study in the Gambia. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2004, 8:1095-1099.
61. Acosta CJ, Galindo CM, Ochiai RL, et al. Implementation of good clinical practice guidelines in vaccine trials in developing countries. Vaccine 2007, 25:2852-2857.
62. Graubard BI, Korn EL Regression analysis with clustered data. Stat Med 1994, 13:509-522.
63. Aulchenko YS, Ripke S, Isaacs A, van Duijn CM GenABEL: an R library for genome-wide association analysis. Bioinformatics 2007, 23:1294-1296.
64. Choi Y, Wijsman EM, Weir BS Case-control association testing in the presence of unknown relationships. Genet Epidemiol 2009, 33:668-678.
65. Godfrey-Faussett P, Kaunda H, Kamanga J, et al. Why do patients with a cough delay seeking care at Lusaka urban health centres? A health systems research approach. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2002, 6:796-805.
66. Chapman JS, Dyerly MD Social and other factors in intrafamilial transmission of tuberculosis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1964, 90:48-60.
67. Comstock GW How much isoniazid is needed for prevention of tuberculosis among immunocompetent adults?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999, 3:847-850.
68. Whalen CC, Johnson JL, Okwera A, et al. A trial of three regimens to prevent tuberculosis in Ugandan adults infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. N Engl J Med 1997, 337:801-808.
69. Lim HJ, Okwera A, Mayanja-Kizza H, Ellner JJ, Mugerwa RD, Whalen CC Effect of tuberculosis preventive therapy on HIV disease progression and survival in HIV-infected adults. HIV Clin Trials 2006, 7:172-183.
70. Johnson JL, Okwera A, Hom DL, et al. Duration of efficacy of treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in HIV-infected adults. AIDS 2001, 15:2137-2147.
71. Dye C, Williams BG Eliminating human tuberculosis in the twenty-first century. J R Soc Interface 2008, 5:653-662.
72. van Zyl S, Marais BJ, Hesseling AC, Gie RP, Beyers N, Schaaf HS Adherence to anti-tuberculosis chemoprophylaxis and treatment in children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006, 10:13-18.
73. Marais BJ, van Zyl S, Schaaf HS, van Aardt M, Gie RP, Beyers N Adherence to isoniazid preventive chemotherapy: a prospective community based study. Arch Dis Child 2006, 91:762-765.
74. Angell M Investigators' responsibilities for human subjects in developing countries. N Engl J Med 2000, 342:967-969.
75. Kasse Y, Jasseh M, Corrah T, et al. Health seeking behaviour, health system experience and tuberculosis case finding in Gambians with cough. BMC Public Health 2006, 6:143.
76. Keeler E, Perkins MD, Small P, et al. Reducing the global burden of tuberculosis: the contribution of improved diagnostics. Nature 2006, 444(suppl 1):49-57.
77. Marais BJ, Hesseling AC, Schaaf HS, Gie RP, van Helden PD, Warren RM Mycobacterium tuberculosis transmission is not related to household genotype in a highly endemic setting. J Clin Microbiol 2009, 47:1338-1343.
78. Verver S, Warren RM, Munch Z, et al. Proportion of tuberculosis transmission that takes place in households in a high-incidence area. Lancet 2004, 363:212-214.
79. Doherty TM, Demissie A, Menzies D, Andersen P, Rook G, Zumla A Effect of sample handling on analysis of cytokine responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples using ELISA, ELISPOT and quantitative PCR. J Immunol Methods 2005, 298:129-141.
80. Mudido PM, Guwatudde D, Nakakeeto MK, et al. The effect of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination at birth on tuberculin skin test reactivity in Ugandan children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 1999, 3:891-895.
81. Gustafson P, Lisse I, Gomes V, et al. Risk factors for positive tuberculin skin test in Guinea-Bissau. Epidemiology 2007, 18:340-347.
82. Farhat M, Greenaway C, Pai M, Menzies D False-positive tuberculin skin tests: what is the absolute effect of BCG and non-tuberculous mycobacteria?. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2006, 10:1192-1204.
83. Young DB, Gideon HP, Wilkinson RJ Eliminating latent tuberculosis. Trends Microbiol 2009, 17:183-188.
84. Martineau AR, Newton SM, Wilkinson KA, et al. Neutrophil-mediated innate immune resistance to mycobacteria. J Clin Invest 2007, 117:1988-1994.
85. Pai M Spectrum of latent tuberculosis - existing tests cannot resolve the underlying phenotypes [letter]. Nat Rev Microbiol 2010, 8:242.
86. Palmer CE, Edwards LB Tuberculin test in retrospect and prospect. Arch Environ Health 1967, 15:792-808.
87. Adetifa IM, Brookes R, Lugos MD, et al. Rising ELISPOT count prior to the onset of symptoms of full-blown tuberculosis disease. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2007, 11:350-352.
88. Guelar A, Gatell JM, Verdejo J, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients. AIDS 1993, 7:1345-1349.
89. Sonnenberg P, Glynn JR, Fielding K, Murray J, Godfrey-Faussett P, Shearer S How soon after infection with HIV does the risk of tuberculosis start to increase? A retrospective cohort study in South African gold miners. J Infect Dis 2005, 191:150-158.
90. Corbett EL, Bandason T, Cheung YB, et al. Epidemiology of tuberculosis in a high HIV prevalence population provided with enhanced diagnosis of symptomatic disease. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e22.
91. Lawn SD, Myer L, Edwards D, Bekker LG, Wood R Short-term and long-term risk of tuberculosis associated with CD4 cell recovery during antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. AIDS 2009, 23:1717-1725.
92. Missed opportunities for prevention of tuberculosis among persons with HIV infection-selected locations, United States, 1996-1997. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2000, 49:685-687. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
93. Hammond AS, McConkey SJ, Hill PC, et al. Mycobacterial T cell responses in HIV-infected patients with advanced immunosuppression. J Infect Dis 2008, 197:295-299.
94. Sleeman KL, Daniels L, Gardiner M, et al. Acquisition of Streptococcus pneumoniae and nonspecific morbidity in infants and their families: a cohort study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005, 24:121-127.
95. Hendley JO, Sande MA, Stewart PM, Gwaltney JM Spread of Streptococcus pneumoniae in families. I. Carriage rates and distribution of types. J Infect Dis 1975, 132:55-61.
96. Shimada J, Yamanaka N, Hotomi M, et al. Household transmission of Streptococcus pneumoniae among siblings with acute otitis media. J Clin Microbiol 2002, 40:1851-1853.
97. Lloyd-Evans N, O'Dempsey TJ, Baldeh I, et al. Nasopharyngeal carriage of pneumococci in Gambian children and in their families. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996, 15:866-871.
98. Gray BM, Converse GM, Dillon HC Epidemiologic studies of Streptococcus pneumoniae in infants: acquisition, carriage, and infection during the first 24 months of life. J Infect Dis 1980, 142:923-933.
99. Hjuler T, Poulsen G, Wohlfahrt J, Kaltoft M, Biggar RJ, Melbye M Genetic susceptibility to severe infection in families with invasive pneumococcal disease. Am J Epidemiol 2008, 167:814-819.
100. Usen S, Adegbola R, Mulholland K, et al. Epidemiology of invasive pneumococcal disease in the Western Region, The Gambia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998, 17:23-28.
101. Antonio M, Hakeem I, Awine T, et al. Seasonality and outbreak of a predominant Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 1 clone from The Gambia: expansion of ST217 hypervirulent clonal complex in West Africa. BMC Microbiol 2008, 8:198.
102. Zhang Q, Bagrade L, Bernatoniene J, et al. Low CD4 T cell immunity to pneumolysin is associated with nasopharyngeal carriage of pneumococci in children. J Infect Dis 2007, 195:1194-1202.
103. Riedo FX, Plikaytis BD, Broome CV Epidemiology and prevention of meningococcal disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1995, 14:643-657.
104. Baker MG, Martin DR, Kieft CE, Lennon D A 10-year serogroup B meningococcal disease epidemic in New Zealand: descriptive epidemiology, 1991-2000. J Paediatr Child Health 2001, 37:S13-S19.
105. Dyet KH, Martin DR Clonal analysis of the serogroup B meningococci causing New Zealand's epidemic. Epidemiol Infect 2006, 134:377-383.
106. Analysis of endemic meningococcal disease by serogroup and evaluation of chemoprophylaxis. J Infect Dis 1976, 134:201-204. The meningococcal disease surveillance group.
107. Cooke RP, Riordan T, Jones DM, Painter MJ Secondary cases of meningococcal infection among close family and household contacts in England and Wales, 1984-7. BMJ 1989, 298:555-558.
108. Olcen P, Kjellander J, Danielsson D, Lindquist BL Epidemiology of Neisseria meningitidis; prevalence and symptoms from the upper respiratory tract in family members to patients with meningococcal disease. Scand J Infect Dis 1981, 13:105-109.
109. Purcell B, Samuelsson S, Hahne SJ, et al. Effectiveness of antibiotics in preventing meningococcal disease after a case: systematic review. BMJ 2004, 328:1339.
110. Marks MI, Frasch CE, Shapera RM Meningococcal colonization and infection in children and their household contacts. Am J Epidemiol 1979, 109:563-571.
111. Simmons G, Martin D, Stewart J, Jones N, Calder L, Bremner D Carriage of Neisseria meningitidis among household contacts of patients with meningococcal disease in New Zealand. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001, 20:237-242.
112. van Deuren M, Brandtzaeg P, van der Meer JW Update on meningococcal disease with emphasis on pathogenesis and clinical management. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000, 13:144-166.