Overview of strategies for overcoming the challenge of antimicrobial resistance

Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology

Volumn 3, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 667-686

  Davey, Peter ^a   Sneddon, Jacqueline ^b   Nathwani, Dilip ^c  

^a Division of Clinical and Population Sciences and Education   (United Kingdom)

^b Scottish Medicines Consortium   (United Kingdom)

^c NINEWELLS HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

antibiotic stewardship; antimicrobial management team; antimicrobial resistance; behavioral interventions; Clostridium difficile infection; collateral damage; near patient testing; sepsis

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AZITHROMYCIN; BACTERIAL DNA; CEPHALOSPORIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLINDAMYCIN; MACROLIDE; METICILLIN; PENICILLIN G; PLACEBO; QUINOLONE; TRIBACTAM; VANCOMYCIN;

AMBULATORY CARE; ANTIBIOTIC PROPHYLAXIS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; BACTERIAL CHROMOSOME; BACTERIAL FLORA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BRONCHITIS; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CLONE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; DNA TRANSFER; DRUG EFFECT; ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS; ENTEROCOCCUS FAECIUM; ESCHERICHIA COLI; EUROPE; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; HOSPITAL CARE; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; INFECTION RISK; KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; NONHUMAN; PATIENT CARE; PENICILLIN RESISTANCE; PHARYNGITIS; PNEUMONIA; PRESCRIPTION; PREVALENCE; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES; TONSILLITIS; UNITED KINGDOM; UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; VANCOMYCIN RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCUS;

EID: 77956843557     PISSN: 17512433     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ecp.10.46     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Verheij TJ. The antibiotic revolution should be more focused. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), 716-717 (2009).
2. Macfarlane JT, Worboys M. The changing management of acute bronchitis in Britain, 1940-1970: the impact of antibiotics. Med. Hist. 52(1), 47-72 (2008).
3. Sykes R. The evolution of antimicrobial resistance: a Darwinian perspective. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. (2010) (In press).
4. Monnet D, Kristinsson K. Turning the tide of antimicrobial resistance: Europe shows the way. Euro Surveill. 13(46), 1-2 (2008).
5. Morel CM, Mossialos E. Stoking the antibiotic pipeline. Br. Med. J. 340, c2115 (2010).
6. So AD, Gupta N, Cars O. Tackling antibiotic resistance. Br. Med. J. 340, c2071 (2010).
7. Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(2), 159-177 (2007).
8. Dryden M, Hand K, Davey P. Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 64(6), 1123-1125 (2009).
9. Isenberg HD. Pathogenicity and virulence: another view. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1, 40-53 (1988).
10. Paterson DL. Collateral damage from cephalosporin or quinolone antibiotic therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38(Suppl. 4), S341-S345 (2004).
11. Guillemot D, Varon E, Bernede C et al. Reduction of antibiotic use in the community reduces the rate of colonization with penicillin G-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(7), 930-938 (2005).
12. Guillemot D, Carbon C, Balkau B et al. Low dosage and long treatment duration of beta-lactam: risk factors for carriage of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. JAMA 279, 365-370 (1998).
13. Kuijper EJ, Coignard B, Tull P. Emergence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in North America and Europe. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 12(Suppl. 6), 2-18 (2006).
14. Srinivasan A, Song X, Richards A, Sinkowitz-Cochran R, Cardo D, Rand C. A survey of knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of house staff physicians from various specialties concerning antimicrobial use and resistance. Arch. Intern. Med. 164(13), 1451-1456 (2004).
15. Easton PM, Sarma A, Williams FL, Marwick CA, Phillips G, Nathwani D. Infection control and management of MRSA: assessing the knowledge of staff in an acute hospital setting. J. Hosp. Infect. 66(1), 29-33 (2007).
16. Simpson SA, Wood F, Butler CC. General practitioners perceptions of antimicrobial resistance: a qualitative study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(2), 292-296 (2007).
17. Furuya EY, Lowy FD. Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in the community setting. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 4(1), 36-45 (2006).
18. Arason VA, Sigurdsson JA, Erlendsdottir H, Gudmundsson S, Kristinsson KG. The role of antimicrobial use in the epidemiology of resistant pneumococci: a 10-year follow up. Microb. Drug Resist. 12(3), 169-176 (2006).
19. Oliveira DC, Tomasz A, de Lencastre H. Secrets of success of a human pathogen: molecular evolution of pandemic clones of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2(3), 180-189 (2002).
20. Monnet DL, MacKenzie FM, Lopez- Lozano JM et al. Antimicrobial drug use and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Aberdeen, 1996-2000. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10(8), 1432-1441 (2004).
21. Gomes AR, Westh H, de Lencastre H. Origins and evolution of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clonal lineages. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50(10), 3237-3244 (2006).
22. Patrick DM, Hutchinson J. Antibiotic use and population ecology: how you can reduce your resistance footprint. CMAJ 180(4), 416-421 (2009).
23. Mulvey MR, Simor AE. Antimicrobial resistance in hospitals: how concerned should we be? CMAJ 180(4), 408-415 (2009).
24. Costelloe C, Metcalfe C, Lovering A, Mant D, Hay AD. Effect of antibiotic prescribing in primary care on antimicrobial resistance in individual patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. 340, c2096 (2010).
25. Johnsen PJ, Townsend JP, Bohn T, Simonsen GS, Sundsfjord A, Nielsen KM. Factors affecting the reversal of antimicrobial-drug resistance. Lancet Infect. Dis. 9(6), 357-364 (2009).
26. Austin DJ, Kristinsson KG, Anderson RM. The relationship between the volume of antimicrobial consumption in human communities and the frequency of resistance. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 96, 1152-1156 (1999).
27. Levin BR. Minimizing potential resistance: a population dynamics view. Clin. Infect. Dis. 33(Suppl. 3), S161-S169 (2001).
28. Lipsitch M. The rise and fall of antimicrobial resistance. Trends Microbiol. 9(9), 438-444 (2001).
29. Gustafsson I, Cars O, Andersson DI. Fitness of antibiotic resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis assessed by competition on the skin of human volunteers. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 52(2), 258-263 (2003).
30. Komp Lindgren P, Marcusson LL, Sandvang D, Frimodt-Moller N, Hughes D. Biological cost of single and multiple norfloxacin resistance mutations in Escherichia coli implicated in urinary tract infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49(6), 2343-2351 (2005).
31. Rozen DE, McGee L, Levin BR, Klugman KP. Fitness costs of fluoroquinolone resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51(2), 412-416 (2007).
32. Lipsitch M, Bergstrom CT, Levin BR. The epidemiology of antibiotic resistance in hospitals: paradoxes and prescriptions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97(4), 1938-1943 (2000).
33. Anonymous. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk - four states, 2005. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 54(47), 1201-1205 (2005).
34. Loo VG, Poirier L, Miller MA et al. A predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N. Engl. J. Med. 353(23), 2442-2449 (2005).
35. Song X, Bartlett JG, Speck K, Naegeli A, Carroll K, Perl TM. Rising economic impact of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in adult hospitalized patient population. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 29(9), 823-828 (2008).
36. Pepin J, Saheb N, Coulombe MA et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(9), 1254-1260 (2005).
37. Pepin J, Valiquette L, Cossette B. Mortality attributable to nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain in Quebec. CMAJ 173(9), 1037-1042 (2005).
38. Warny M, Pepin J, Fang A et al. Toxin production by an emerging strain of Clostridium difficile associated with outbreaks of severe disease in North America and Europe. Lancet 366(9491), 1079-1084 (2005).
39. Carignan A, Allard C, Pepin J, Cossette B, Nault V, Valiquette L. Risk of Clostridium difficile infection after perioperative antibacterial prophylaxis before and during an outbreak of infection due to a hypervirulent strain. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46(12), 1838-1843 (2008).
40. Barbut F, Mastrantonio P, Delmee M, Brazier J, Kuijper E, Poxton I. Prospective study of Clostridium difficile infections in Europe with phenotypic and genotypic characterisation of the isolates. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 13(11), 1048-1057 (2007).
41. Donnan PT, Wei L, Steinke DT et al. Presence of bacteriuria caused by trimethoprim resistant bacteria in patients prescribed antibiotics: multilevel model with practice and individual patient data. Br. Med. J. 328(7451), 1297 (2004).
42. Leibovici L, Berger R, Gruenewald T et al. Departmental consumption of antibiotic drugs and subsequent resistance: a quantitative link. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 48, 535-540 (2001).
43. Chung A, Perera R, Brueggemann AB et al. Effect of antibiotic prescribing on antibiotic resistance in individual children in primary care: prospective cohort study. Br. Med. J. 335(7617), 429 (2007).
44. Malhotra-Kumar S, Lammens C, Coenen S, Van Herck K, Goossens H. Effect of azithromycin and clarithromycin therapy on pharyngeal carriage of macrolide-resistant streptococci in healthy volunteers: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 369(9560), 482-490 (2007).
45. Beaugerie L, Flahault A, Barbut F et al. Antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile in the community. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 17(7), 905-912 (2003).
46. Hirschhorn LR, Trnka Y, Onderdonk A, Lee ML, Platt R. Epidemiology of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. J. Infect. Dis. 169(1), 127-133 (1994).
47. Pulcini C, Williams F, Molinari N, Davey P, Nathwani D. Junior doctors knowledge and perceptions of antibiotic resistance and prescribing: a survey in France and Scotland. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2010. 03179.x (2010).
48. Askarian M, Mirzaei K, Mundy LM, McLaws ML. Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding isolation precautions among Iranian healthcare workers. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 26(1), 105-108 (2005).
49. De Souza V, MacFarlane A, Murphy AW, Hanahoe B, Barber A, Cormican M. A qualitative study of factors influencing antimicrobial prescribing by non-consultant hospital doctors. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 58(4), 840-843 (2006).
50. van Gemert-Pijnen J, Hendrix MG, van der Palen J, Schellens PJ. Performance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus protocols in Dutch hospitals. Am. J. Infect. Control 33(7), 377-384 (2005).
51. Pessoa-Silva CL, Posfay-Barbe K, Pfister R, Touveneau S, Perneger TV, Pittet D. Attitudes and perceptions toward hand hygiene among healthcare workers caring for critically ill neonates. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 26(3), 305-311 (2005).
52. Tsagkaraki AP, Sampaziotis F, Cooke FJ, Gkrania-Klotsas E. Assessing staff knowledge about Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. J. Hosp. Infect. 72(1), 81-83 (2009).
53. Hart AM, Pepper GA, Gonzales R. Balancing acts: deciding for or against antibiotics in acute respiratory infections. J. Fam. Pract. 55(4), 320-325 (2006).
54. Davey PG, Pagliari C, Hayes A. The patients role in the spread and control of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8(2), 43-68 (2002).
55. McNulty CA, Boyle P, Nichols T, Clappison P, Davey P. Dont wear me out - the publics knowledge of and attitudes to antibiotic use. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(4), 727-738 (2007).
56. Easton PM, Marwick CA, Williams FL et al. A survey on public knowledge and perceptions of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 63(1), 209-214 (2009).
57. Collins JP, Roberts DM, Evans CF, DeAth HD, Galland RB. Public perception of Clostridium difficile. J. Hosp. Infect. 72(1), 80-81 (2009).
58. Burnett E, Lee K, Rushmer R, Ellis M, Noble M, Davey P. Healthcare-associated infection and the patient experience: a qualitative study using patient interviews. J. Hosp. Infect. 74(1), 42-47. (2009).
59. Nicolle L, Conly JM, MacDonald N. Embracing ecology to limit antimicrobial resistance. CMAJ 180(4), 371-372 (2009).
60. Aldeyab MA, Harbarth S, Vernaz N et al. Quasiexperimental study of the effects of antibiotic use, gastric acid-suppressive agents, and infection control practices on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in hospitalized patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53(5), 2082-2088 (2009).
61. Vernaz N, Hill K, Leggeat S et al. Temporal effects of antibiotic use and Clostridium difficile infections. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 63(6), 1272-1275 (2009).
62. Coenen S, Muller A, Adriaenssens N, Vankerckhoven V, Hendrickx E, Goossens H. European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption (ESAC): outpatient parenteral antibiotic treatment in Europe. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 64(1), 200-205 (2009).
63. Goossens H, Ferech M, Vander SR, Elseviers M. Outpatient antibiotic use in Europe and association with resistance: a cross-national database study. Lancet 365(9459), 579-587 (2005).
64. Davey P, Ferech M, Ansari F, Muller A, Goossens H; on behalf of the ESAC Project Group. Outpatient antibiotic use in the four administrations of the UK: cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 62(6), 1441-1447 (2008).
65. Ansari F, Erntell M, Goossens H, Davey P. The European surveillance of antimicrobial consumption (ESAC) point-prevalence survey of antibacterial use in 20 European hospitals in 2006. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49(10), 1496-1504 (2009).
66. Vander Stichele RH, Elseviers MM, Ferech M, Blot S, Goossens H; on behalf of the European Surveillance of Antibiotic Consumption Project G. Hospital consumption of antibiotics in 15 European countries: results of the ESAC Retrospective Data Collection (1997-2002). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 58(1), 159-167 (2006).
67. World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology. Guidelines for ATC Classification and DDD Assignment, WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, Oslo, Norway (2006).
68. Henderson KL, Müller-Pebody B, Johnson AP, Goossens H, Sharland M; on behalf of the ARPEC Group. First set-up meeting for antibiotic resistance and prescribing in European children (ARPEC). Euro Surveill. 14(45), pii: 19404. (2009).
69. Vermeulen LC, Vulto AG, Zellmer WA. Editorial: the promise of Basel. Am. J. Health Syst. Pharm. 66(5 Suppl. 3), S7 (2009).
70. Gandhi T, Flanders SA, Markovitz E, Saint S, Kaul DR. Importance of urinary tract infection to antibiotic use among hospitalized patients. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 30(2), 193-195 (2009).
71. Hermanides HS, Hulscher ME, Schouten JA, Prins JM, Geerlings SE. Development of quality indicators for the antibiotic treatment of complicated urinary tract infections: a first step to measure and improve care. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46(5), 703-711 (2008).
72. Christ-Crain M, Jaccard-Stolz D, Bingisser R et al. Effect of procalcitonin-guided treatment on antibiotic use and outcome in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster-randomised, single-blinded intervention trial. Lancet 363(9409), 600-607 (2004).
73. Goossens H, Ferech M, Coenen S, Stephens P. Comparison of outpatient systemic antibacterial use in 2004 in the United States and 27 European countries. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(8), 1091-1095 (2007).
74. Wang KY, Seed P, Schofield P, Ibrahim S, Ashworth M. Which practices are high antibiotic prescribers? A cross-sectional analysis. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), e315-e320 (2009).
75. Kuyvenhoven M, van Essen G, Schellevis F, Verheij T. Management of upper respiratory tract infections in Dutch general practice; antibiotic prescribing rates and incidences in 1987 and 2001. Fam. Pract. 23(2), 175-179 (2006).
76. Butler CC, Hood K, Verheij T et al. Variation in antibiotic prescribing and its impact on recovery in patients with acute cough in primary care: prospective study in 13 countries. Br. Med. J. 338, b2242 (2009).
77. McNulty C, Boyle P, Nichols T, Clappison P, Davey P. Left-over antimicrobials in the home, United Kindom. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(10), 1523-1526 (2006).
78. Grigoryan L, Haaijer-Rysjamp FM, Burgerhof JG et al. Self-medication with antimicrobial drugs in Europe. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(3), 452-459 (2006).
79. Grigoryan L, Burgerhof JG, Degener JE et al. Determinants of self-medication with antibiotics in Europe: the impact of beliefs, country wealth and the healthcare system. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 61(5), 1172-1179 (2008).
80. Davey P, Brown E, Fenelon L et al. Systematic review of antimicrobial drug prescribing in hospitals. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12(2), 211-216 (2006).
81. Coenen S, Ferech M, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM et al. European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption (ESAC): quality indicators for outpatient antibiotic use in Europe. Qual. Saf. Health Care 16(6), 440-445 (2007).
82. Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Casal J, Dal Re R, Baquero F. Streptococcus pyogenes resistance to erythromycin in relation to macrolide consumption in Spain (1986-1997). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 46(6), 959-964 (2000).
83. Granizo JJ, Aguilar L, Casal J, Garcia- Rey C, Dal Re R, Baquero F. Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance to erythromycin and penicillin in relation to macrolide and b-lactam consumption in Spain (1979-1997). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 46(5), 767-773 (2000).
84. Rice LB. The Maxwell Finland Lecture: for the duration-rational antibiotic administration in an era of antimicrobial resistance and Clostridium difficile. Clin. Infect. Dis. 46(4), 491-496 (2008).
85. el Moussaoui R, de Borgie CAJM, van den Broek P et al. Effectiveness of discontinuing antibiotic treatment after three days versus eight days in mild to moderate-severe community acquired pneumonia: randomised, double blind study. Br. Med. J. 332(7554), 1355 (2006).
86. Chastre J, Wolff M, Fagon JY et al. Comparison of 8 vs 15 days of antibiotic therapy for ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a randomized trial. JAMA 290(19), 2588-2598 (2003).
87. Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care (EPOC) Group. EPOC resources for review authors. EPOC Resources for Review Authors 1-26 (2009).
88. Stone SP, Cooper BS, Kibbler CC et al. The ORION statement: guidelines for transparent reporting of outbreak reports and intervention studies of nosocomial infection. Lancet Infect. Dis. 7(4), 282-288 (2007).
89. Shardell M, Harris AD, El-Kamary SS, Furuno JP, Miller RR, Perencevich EN. Statistical analysis and application of quasi experiments to antimicrobial resistance intervention studies. Clin. Infect. Dis. 45(7), 901-907 (2007).
90. Harris AD, Lautenbach E, Perencevich E. A systematic review of quasi-experimental study designs in the fields of infection control and antibiotic resistance. Clin. Infect. Dis. 41(1), 77-82 (2005).
91. Arnold SR, Straus SE. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices in ambulatory care. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (4), CD003539 (2005).
92. Davey P, Brown E, Fenelon L et al. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. (4), CD003543 (2005).
93. Davey PG, Nathwani D, Rubinstein E. Antibiotic policies. In: Antibiotic and Chemotherapy (9th Edition). Finch RG, Greenwood D, Norrby R (Eds). Elsevier, London UK (2010) (In press).
94. Kliger I. Auto-historiography: genre, trope, and modes of emplotment in Aleksandr and Natalja Gercens narratives of the family drama. Russian Literature 61(1-2), 103-138 (2007).
95. Goossens H, Coenen S, Costers M et al. Achievements of the Belgian Antibiotic Policy Coordination Committee (BAPCOC). Euro Surveill. 13(46), pii: 19036 (2008).
96. Rautakorpi UM, Huikko S, Honkanen P et al. The Antimicrobial Treatment Strategies (MIKSTRA) program: a 5-year follow-up of infection-specific antibiotic use in primary health care and the effect of implementation of treatment guidelines. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42(9), 1221-1230 (2006).
97. Sabuncu E, David J, Bernede-Bauduin C et al. Significant reduction of antibiotic use in the community after a nationwide campaign in France, 2002-2007. PLoS Med. 6(6), e1000084 (2009).
98. Molstad S, Erntell M, Hanberger H et al. Sustained reduction of antibiotic use and low bacterial resistance: 10-year follow-up of the Swedish Strama programme. Lancet Infect. Dis. 8(2), 125-132 (2008).
99. Molstad S, Cars O, Struwe J. Strama - a Swedish working model for containment of antibiotic resistance. Euro Surveill. 13(46), pii: 19041 (2008).
100. Meropol SB, Chen Z, Metlay JP. Reduced antibiotic prescribing for acute respiratory infections in adults and children. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), e321-e328 (2009).
101. Lambert MF, Masters GA, Brent SL. Can mass media campaigns change antimicrobial prescribing? A regional evaluation study. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(3), 537-543 (2007).
102. Seppala H, Klaukka T, Vuopio-Varkila J et al. The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in group A Streptococci in Finland. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 441-446 (1997).
103. Anonymous. Recent trends in antimicrobial resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus isolates: the French experience. Euro Surveill. 13(46), pii: 19035 (2008).
104. Gottesman BS, Carmeli Y, Shitrit P, Chowers M. Impact of quinolone restriction on resistance patterns of Escherichia coli isolated from urine by culture in a community setting. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49(6), 869-875 (2009).
105. Davey P, Urquhart L. Will a reduction in community prescribing of quinolones decrease the prevalence of quinolone resistance? Clin. Infect. Dis. 49(6), 876-877 (2009).
106. Kyaw MH, Lynfield R, Schaffner W et al. Effect of introduction of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. N. Engl. J. Med. 354(14), 1455-1463 (2006).
107. Lan CK, Hsueh PR, Wong WW et al. Association of antibiotic utilization measures and reduced incidence of infections with extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing organisms. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 36(3), 182-186 (2003).
108. Lee SO, Lee ES, Park SY, Kim SY, Seo YH, Cho YK. Reduced use of third-generation cephalosporins decreases the acquisition of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 25(10), 832-837 (2004).
109. Madaras-Kelly KJ, Remington RE, Lewis PG, Stevens DL. Evaluation of an intervention designed to decrease the rate of nosocomial methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection by encouraging decreased fluoroquinolone use. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 27(2), 155-169 (2006).
110. Charbonneau P, Parienti JJ, Thibon P et al. Fluoroquinolone use and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolation rates in hospitalized patients: a quasi experimental study. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42(6), 778-784 (2006).
111. Fowler S, Webber A, Cooper BS et al. Successful use of feedback to improve antibiotic prescribing and reduce Clostridium difficile infection: a controlled interrupted time series. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(5), 990-998 (2007).
112. Weiss K, Boisvert A, Chagnon M et al. Multipronged intervention strategy to control an outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and its impact on the rates of CDI from 2002 to 2007. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 30(2), 156-162 (2009).
113. Paul M, Andreassen S, Tacconelli E et al. Improving empirical antibiotic treatment using TREAT, a computerized decision support system: cluster randomized trial. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 58(6), 1238-1245 (2006).
114. Cooper BS, Stone SP, Kibbler CC et al. Isolation measures in the hospital management of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): systematic review of the literature. Br. Med. J. 329(7465), 533-541 (2004).
115. Robicsek A, Beaumont JL, Paule SM et al. Universal surveillance for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in 3 affiliated hospitals. Ann. Intern. Med. 148(6), 409-418 (2008).
116. Marwick C, Davey P. Care bundles: the holy grail of infectious risk management in hospital? Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 22(4), 364-369 (2009).
117. Petersen I, Johnson AM, Islam A, Duckworth G, Livermore DM, Hayward AC. Protective effect of antibiotics against serious complications of common respiratory tract infections: retrospective cohort study with the UK General Practice Research Database. Br. Med. J. 335(7627), 982-988 (2007).
118. Cals JW, Butler CC, Hopstaken RM, Hood K, Dinant GJ. Effect of point of care testing for C reactive protein and training in communication skills on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster randomised trial. Br. Med. J. 338, b1374 (2009).
119. Vinogradova Y, Hippisley-Cox J, Coupland C. Identification of new risk factors for pneumonia: population-based case-control study. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), e329-e338 (2009).
120. Moore M, Little P, Rumsby K et al. Effect of antibiotic prescribing strategies and an information leaflet on longer-term reconsultation for acute lower respiratory tract infection. Br. J. Gen. Pract. 59(567), 728-734 (2009).
121. Loeb M, Brazil K, Lohfeld L et al. Effect of a multifaceted intervention on number of antimicrobial prescriptions for suspected urinary tract infections in residents of nursing homes: cluster randomised controlled trial. Br. Med. J. 331(7518), 669 (2005).
122. Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Bingisser R et al. Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 174(1), 84-93 (2006).
123. Meyer E, Buttler J, Schneider C et al. Modified guidelines impact on antibiotic use and costs: duration of treatment for pneumonia in a neurosurgical ICU is reduced. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 59(6), 1148-1154 (2007).
124. Micek ST, Ward S, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. A randomized controlled trial of an antibiotic discontinuation policy for clinically suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 125(5), 1791-1799 (2004).
125. van Kasteren ME, Mannien J, Kullberg BJ et al. Quality improvement of surgical prophylaxis in Dutch hospitals: evaluation of a multi-site intervention by time series analysis. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 56(6), 1094-1102 (2005).
126. Schuetz P, Christ-Crain M, Thomann R et al. Effect of procalcitonin-based guidelines vs standard guidelines on antibiotic use in lower respiratory tract infections: the ProHOSP randomized controlled trial. JAMA 302(10), 1059-1066 (2009).
127. Briel M, Schuetz P, Mueller B et al. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic use vs a standard approach for acute respiratory tract infections in primary care. Arch. Intern. Med. 168(18), 2000-2007 (2008).
128. Van Kasteren ME, Mannien J, Ott A, Kullberg BJ, De Boer AS, Gyssens IC. Antibiotic prophylaxis and the risk of surgical site infections following total hip arthroplasty: timely administration is the most important factor. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44(7), 921-927 (2007).
129. Earnshaw S, Monnet DL, Duncan B, OToole J, Ekdahl K, Goossens H. European Antibiotic Awareness Day, 2008 - the first Europe-wide public information campaign on prudent antibiotic use: methods and survey of activities in participating countries. Euro Surveill. 14(30), 19280 (2009).
130. Allerberger F, Gareis R, Jindrak V, Struelens MJ. Antibiotic stewardship implementation in the EU: the way forward. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 7(10), 1175-1183 (2009).
131. Resar R, Pronovost P, Haraden C, Simmonds T, Rainey T, Nolan T. Using a bundle approach to improve ventilator care processes and reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia. Jt Comm. J. Qual. Patient Saf. 31(5), 243-248 (2005).
132. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), European Medicines Agency (EMEA), Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR). Joint Opinion on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) focused on zoonotic infections. Scientific Opinion of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control; Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Biological Hazards; Opinion of the Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use; Scientific Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks www.emea.europa.eu/pdfs/ vet/ sagam/44725909en.pdf (Accessed 7 December 2009).
133. Anonymous. The Scottish management of antimicrobial resistance action plan 2008 www.scotland.gov.uk/ Publications/2008/03/12153030/16 (Accessed 28 December 2009)
134. European antimicrobial resistance surveillance scheme reports and articles www.rivm.nl/earss/result/Monitoring-reports
135. Grundmann H. European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Scheme (EARSS) annual report 2008 www.rivm.nl/earss/Images/EARSS%20 2008-final-tcm61-65020.pdf (Accessed 21 April 2010)
136. National Concern for Healthcare Infections www.nc-hi.com
137. World Health Organization patients for patient safety www.who.int/patientsafety/patients-for-patient/who-we-are/en/index.html
138. MRSA-Net www.mrsa-net.nl/nl
139. European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption http://app.esac.ua.ac. be/public
140. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Management of suspected bacterial urinary tract infection in adults www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign88. pdf
141. Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). Antibiotic prophylaxis in surgery www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign104.pdf (Accessed 15 August 2009)
142. British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy Resource Library, Cochrane Review: Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients www.bsac.org.uk/resource-library.cfm
143. Anonymous. SWEDRES 2007. A report on swedish antimicrobial utilisation and resistance in human medicine http://soapimg.icecube.snowfall.se/strama/ Swedres%202007%20080530.pdf (Accessed 23 February 2009)
144. CMO Quotes - Good Practice (quotes from Sir Liam Donaldson, Chief Medical Officer of the UK and Lead for the WHO Patient Safety Program www.dh.gov.uk/en/Aboutus/ MinistersandDepartmentLeaders/ ChiefMedicalOfficer/ CMOPublications/ QuoteUnquote/DH-4102566
145. Institute for Safe Medication Practices Canada. Ontario Antimicrobial Stewardship Project: Consensus Conference on Priority Interventions for Ontario Hospitals Final Report http://ismpcanada.ca/abx/downloads/ Concensus-Conference- Summary- Report.pdf (Accessed 21 April 2010)
146. Haute Autorité de Santé. Antibiotic therapy and prevention of bacterial resistance in healthcare organisations www.has-sante.fr/portail/ jcms/c-665169/ antibiotic-therapy-and-prevention-of-bacterial-resistance-in- healthcare-organisations (Accessed 21 April 2010)
147. Scottish Antimicrobial Prescribing Group www.scottishmedicines.org.uk/ smc/6616. html
148. NHS Quality Improvement Scotland Healthcare Environment Inspectorate. Antimicrobial inspection tool www.nhshealthquality.org/ nhsqis/6710.140.1366. html (Accessed 5 March 2010)
149. McGuire M, Keel A, Scott B. A revised framework for national surveillance of healthcare associated infection and the introduction of a new Health Efficiency and Access to Treatment (HEAT) target for Clostridium difficile-associated disease (CDAD) for NHS Scotland www.sehd.scot.nhs.uk/mels/ CEL2009-11. pdf (Accessed 21 April 2010)
150. Scottish Patient Safety Alliance www.patientsafetyalliance.scot.nhs.uk
151. NHS Education for Scotland short courses on antimicrobial resistance and healthcare associated infection www.nes.scot.nhs.uk/hai/osc
152. Description of mandatory training for junior doctors www.nes.scot.nhs.uk/ hai/resources