Volatiles from Thymbra and Thymus species of the Western Mediterranean Basin, Portugal and Macaronesia

Natural Product Communications

Volumn 5, Issue 9, 2010, Pages 1465-1476

  Figueiredo, A Cristina ^a   Barroso, José G ^a   Pedro, Luis G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LISBON   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Essential oil; Labiatae; Lamiaceae; Macaronesia; Portugal; Thymbra; Thymus; Volatiles; Western Mediterranean

Indexed keywords

BETA PINENE; BORNEOL; CAMPHENE; CAMPHOR; CARVACROL; CARVACRYL ACETATE; CARYOPHYLLENE; CINEOLE; COPAENE; ESSENTIAL OIL; GAMMA EUDESMOL; GERANYL ACETATE; INTERMEDEOL; LIMONENE; LINALOOL; MENTHONE; METHYL CARVACROL; MYRCENE; OCIMENE; PARA CYMENE; PINENE; SABINENE; TERPENYL ACETATE; TERPINEN 4 OL; TERPINENE; TERPINEOL; THYME OIL; THYMOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VOLATILE AGENT;

CAPE VERDE; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; DRUG ISOLATION; GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION; MACARONESIA; NONHUMAN; PORTUGAL; REVIEW; SOUTHERN EUROPE; SPAIN; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; THYMBRA; THYME; CHEMISTRY; CLASSIFICATION; THYMUS (PLANT);

LAMIACEAE; THYMBRA; THYMUS (THYME); THYMUS VULGARIS;

MEDITERRANEAN REGION; OILS, VOLATILE; PORTUGAL; THYMUS PLANT;

EID: 77956671291     PISSN: 1934578X     EISSN: 15559475     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1934578x1000500924     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Morales Valverde R. (2002) The history, botany and taxonomy of the genus. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles, vol. 17, Stahl-Biskup E, Sáez F (Eds). Taylor & Francis, London, 1-43.
2. Morales Valverde R. (1987) El género Thymbra L. (Labiatae) Annales del Jardin Botânico de Madrid, 44, 349-379.
3. Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG, Salgueiro L, Miguel MG, Faleiro ML. (2008) Portuguese Thymbra and Thymus species volatiles: chemical composition and biological activities. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 14, 3120-3140.
4. Council of Europe (COE) - European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines (2008) European Pharmacopoeia 6th Edition. Strasbourg.
5. Keefover-Ring K, Thompson JD, Linharta YB. (2009) Beyond six scents: defining a seventh Thymus vulgaris chemotype new to southern France by ethanol extraction. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 24, 117-122.
6. Dawidowicz AL, Rad E, Wianowska D, Mardarowicz M, Gawdzik J. (2009) Application of PLE for the determination of essential oil components from Thymus vulgaris L. Talanta, 76, 878-884.
7. Grosso C, Figueiredo AC, Burillo J, Mainar AM, Urieta JS, Barroso JG, Coelho JA, Palavra AMF (2010) Composition and antioxidant activity of Thymus vulgaris volatiles: comparison between supercritical fluid extraction and hydrodistillation. Journal of Separation Science, 33, 2211-2218.
8. Díaz-Maroto MC, Hidalgo IJD-M, Sánchez-Palomo E, Pérez-Coello MS. (2005) Volatile components and key odorants of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) oil extracts obtained by simultaneous distillation - extraction and supercritical fluid extraction. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 5385-5389.
9. Stahl-Biskup E. (2002) Essential oil chemistry of the genus Thymus - a global view. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles, vol. 17, Stahl-Biskup E, Sáez F (Eds). Taylor & Francis, London, 75-124.
10. Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG, Scheffer JJC. (2008) Factors affecting secondary metabolites production in plants: volatile components and essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 23, 213-226.
11. Morales Valverde R. (2010) Thymbra L. In Flora Iberica Plantas Vasculares de la Peninsula Iberica e Islas Baleares. Vol. XII. Morales R, Quintanar A, Cabezas F, Pujadas AJ, Cirujano S. (Eds), Castroviejo (coord.). Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC. Madrid. pp. 347-349.
12. Cosentino S, Tuberoso CIG, Pisano B, Satta M, Mascia V, Arzedi E, Palmas F. (1999) In-vitro antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of Sardinian Thymus essential oils. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 29, 130-135. (Pubitemid 29423829)
13. Miceli A, Negro C, Tommasi L. (2006) Essential oil variability in Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. growing wild in Southern Apulia (Italy). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 34, 528-535.
14. Tommasi L, Negro C, Cerfeda A, Nutricati E, Zuccarello V, De Bellis L, Miceli A. (2007) Influence of environmental factors on essential oil variability in Thymbra capitata (L.) Cav. growing wild in Southern Puglia (Italy). Journal of Essential Oil Research, 19, 572-580. (Pubitemid 350246963)
15. Tommasi L, Negro C, Miceli A, Mazzotta F. (2009) Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from aromatic plants grown in the Mediterranean area. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 185-189.
16. Morales Valverde R. El (1993) género Thymus L. (Labiatae) en Africa. Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 51, 205-236.
17. Salgueiro LR. (1994) Os tomilhos portugueses e os seus óleos essenciais. Dissertação de Doutoramento, Universidade de Coimbra.
18. Trindade H, Costa MM, Lima ASB, Pedro LG, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG. (2008) Genetic diversity and chemical polymorphism of Thymus caespititius from Pico, São Jorge and Terceira islands (Azores). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 36, 790-797.
19. Trindade H, Costa MM, Lima ASB, Pedro LG, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG. (2009) A combined approach using RAPD, ISSR and volatile analysis for the characterization of Thymus caespititius from Flores, Corvo and Graciosa islands (Azores, Portugal). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 37, 6704-677.
20. Lima AS, Trindade H, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG. (2010) Molecular and volatiles characterization of Portuguese Thymus caespititius chemotypes. Acta Horticulturae, 860, 81-86.
21. Torras J, Grau MD, López JF, de las Heras FXC. (2007) Analysis of essential oils from chemotypes of Thymus vulgaris in Catalonia. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 87, 2327-2333.
22. Adzet T, Granger R, Passet J, San Martin R. (1977) Le polymorphisme chimique dans le genre Thymus: sa signification taxonomique. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 5, 269-272.
23. Kulisic T, Krisko A, Dragovic-Uzelac V, Milos M, Pifat G. (2007) The effects of essential oils and aqueous tea infusions of oregano (Origanum vulgare L. spp. hirtum), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) and wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum L.) on the copper-induced oxidation of human low-density lipoproteins. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 58, 87-93. (Pubitemid 47161432)
24. Abu-Darwish MS, Abu Dieyeh ZH, Mufeed B, Al-Tawaha ARM, Al-Dalain SYA. (2009) Trace element contents and essential oil yields from wild thyme plant (Thymus serpyllum L.) grown at different natural variable environments, Jordan. Journal of Food Agriculture & Environment, 7, 920-924.
25. Lawrence BM, Tucker AO. (2002) The genus Thymus as a source of commercial products. In Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Industrial Profiles, vol. 17. Stahl-Biskup E, Sáez F (Eds). Taylor & Francis, London; 252-262.
26. Lawrence B. (2009) A preliminary report on the world production of some selected essential oils and countries. Perfumer & Flavorist, 34, 38-44.
27. European Medicines Agency (EMA) (2007) Community herbal monograph on Thymus vulgaris L. and Thymus zygis L., herba. EMEA/HMPC/234113/2006 (http://www.ema.europa.eu).
28. European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) (2009) Compendium of botanicals that have been reported to contain toxic, addictive, psychotropic or other substances of concern on request of EFSA. EFSA Journal, 7, 281-381.
29. ISO 14715:2010. (2010) Oil of thyme containing thymol, Spanish type [Thymus zygis (Loefl.) L.].
30. Sanna Passino G, Bazzoni E, Moretti MDL, Prota R. (1999) Effects of essential oil formulations on Ceratitis capitata Wied. (Dipt., Tephritidae) adult flies. Journal of Applied Entomology, 123, 145-149. (Pubitemid 29194468)
31. Hedhili L, Romdhane M, Abderrabba A, Planche H, Cherif I. (2002) Variability in essential oil composition of Tunisian Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. et Link. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17, 26-28.
32. Hedhili L, Romdhane M, Planche H, Abderrabba M. (2005) Towards gas chromatography-mass spectrometry coupling protocols for both identifying and quantification essential oils of Thymus capitatus Hoffmanns. et Link. Journal of Chromatography A, 1064, 129-134. (Pubitemid 40126588)
33. Bouzouita N, Kachouri F, Hamdi M, Chaabouni MM. (2003) Antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Tunisian aromatic plants. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 18, 380-383. (Pubitemid 37121596)
34. Salah KBH, Chaumont J-P, Harzallah-Skhiri F, Chraief I, Michel L, Millet-Clerc J, Aouni M. (2006) Activités inhibitrices in vitro d'huiles essentielles de Coridothymus capitatus (L.) Rchb. f. vis-à-vis de germes représentatifs de microflores cutanées. Acta Botanica Gallica, 153, 365-373.
35. Bounatirou S, Zouari S, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG, Neffati M, Rejeb MN, Smiti S. (2006) Chemical homogeneity of Thymus capitatus Hoffmanns. and Link essential oils from Tunisia. Revue des Régions Arides, (Número Spécial, SIPAM 2006), 679-686.
36. Bounatirou S, Smiti S, Miguel MG, Faleiro L, Rejeb MN, Neffati M, Costa MM, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG. (2007) Chemical composition, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the essential oils isolated from Tunisian Thymus capitatus Hoffmanns. and Link. Food Chemistry, 105, 146-155.
37. Bounatirou S, Smiti S, Miguel MG, Rejeb MN, Neffati M, Costa MM, Faleiro L, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG. (2008) Thymus capitatus grown in Tunisia: antioxidant ability of the essential oils on linoleic acid evaluated by different methods. Acta Horticulturae, 765, 315-323.
38. Bounatirou S, Smiti S, Miguel MG, Faleiro L, Rejeb MN, Neffati M, Costa MM, Faleiro L, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LG. (2010) Thermal stability of the essential oils isolated from Tunisian Thymus capitatus Hoffmanns. and Link: effect on the chemical composition and on the antioxidant and antibacterial activities. Acta Alimentaria, 39, 299-307.
39. Galego L, Almeida V, Goncalves V, Costa M, Monteiro I, Matos F, Miguel G, Gardner G, Craker LE. (2008) Antioxidant activity of the essential oils of Thymbra capitata, Origanum vulgare, Thymus mastichina, and Calamintha baetica. Acta Horticulturae, 765, 325-334. (Pubitemid 351532787)
40. Amarti F, Satrani B, Aafi A, Ghanmi M, Farah A, Aberchane M, El Ajjouri M, El Antry S, Chaouch A. (2008) Composition chimique et activité antimicrobienne des huiles essentielles de Thymus capitatus et de Thymus bleicherianus du Maroc. Phytothérapie, 6, 342-347.
41. El Ajjouri M, Satrani B, Ghanmi M, Aafi A, Farah A, Rahouti M, Amarti F, Aberchane M. (2008) Activité antifongique des huiles essentielles de Thymus bleicherianus Pomel et Thymus capitatus (L.) Hoffmanns. and Link contre les champignons de pourriture du bois d'oeuvre. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 12, 345-351.
42. Machado M, Santoro G, Sousa MC, Salgueiro L, Cavaleiro C. (2010) Activity of essential oils on the growth of Leishmania infantum promastigotes. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 25, 156-160.
43. Machado M, Sousa MC, Salgueiro L, Cavaleiro C. (2010) Effects of essential oils on the growth of Giardia lamblia trophozoites. Natural Product Communications, 5, 137-141.
44. Machado M, Dinis AM, Salgueiro L, Cavaleiro C, Custódio JBA, Sousa MC. (2010) Anti-Giardia activity of phenolic-rich essential oils: effects of Thymbra capitata, Origanum virens, Thymus zygis subsp. sylvestris, and Lippia graveolens on trophozoites growth, viability, adherence, and ultrastructure. Parasitology Research, 106,1205-15.
45. Miguel MG, Almeida ML, Gonçalves MA, Figueiredo AC, Barroso JG, Pedro LM. (2010) Toxic effects of three essential oils on Ceratitis capitata. Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants, 13, 191-199.
46. Barbosa PA, Lima S, Vieira P, Dias LS, Tinoco MT, Barroso JG, Pedro LG, Figueiredo AC, Mota M. (2010) Nematicidal activity of essential oils and volatiles from the Portuguese aromatic flora against the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Journal of Nematology, (in press).
47. Dandlen AS, Lima AS, Mendes MD, Miguel MG, Faleiro ML, Sousa MJ, Pedro LG, Barroso JG, Figueiredo AC. (2010) Antioxidant activity of six Portuguese thyme species essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 25,150-155.
48. Richard H, Benjilali B, Banquour N, Baritaux O. (1985) Etude de diverses huiles essentielles de thym du Maroc. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft unders Technologie, 18, 105-110.
49. Martí D, Pérez-Gracia MT, Blanquer A, Villagrasa V, Sanahuja MA, Moreno L. (2007) Thymus piperella (L.) essential oil: an alternative in the treatment of diarrhoea. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 22, 201-205. (Pubitemid 46795728)
50. Hazzit M, Baaliouamer A, Faleiro ML, Miguel MG. (2006) Composition of the essential oils of Thymus and Origanum species from Algeria and their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54, 6314-6321. (Pubitemid 44375791)
51. Giordani R, Hadef Y, Kaloustian J. (2008) Compositions and antifungal activities of essential oils of some Algerian aromatic plants. Fitoterapia, 79, 199-203.
52. Kabouche A, Ghannadi A, Kabouche Z. (2009) Thymus ciliatus - The highest thymol containing essential oil of the genus. Natural Product Communications, 4, 1251-1252.
53. Amarti F, Satrani B, Ghanmi M, Farah A, Aafi A, Aarab L, El Ajjouri M, Chaouch A. (2010) Composition chimique et activité antimicrobienne des huiles essentielles de Thymus algeriensis Boiss. & Reut. et Thymus ciliatus (Desf.) Benth. du Maroc. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Society and Environment, 14, 141-148.
54. Bousmaha-Marroki L, Atik-Bekkara F, Tomi F, Casanova J. (2007) Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil of Thymus ciliatus (Desf.) Benth. ssp. eu-ciliatus Maire from Algeria. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 19, 490-493. (Pubitemid 47436799)
55. Bouchra C, Achouri M, Hassani LMI, Hmamouchi M. (2003) Chemical composition and antifungal activity of essential oils of seven Moroccan Labiatae against Botrytis cinerea Pers: Fr. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 89, 165-169. (Pubitemid 37163817)
56. Jordán MJ, Martínez RM, Cases MA, Sotomayor JA. (2003) Watering level effect on Thymus hyemalis Lange essential oil yield and composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 5420-5427.
57. Martínez RM, Jordán MJ, Quflez M, Sotomayor JA. (2005) Effects of edaphoclimatic conditions on Thymus hyemalis L. essential oil yield and composition. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 17, 614-618.
58. Jordán MJ, Martínez RM, Goodner KL, Baldwin EA, Sotomayor JA. (2006) Seasonal variation of Thymus hyemalis Lange and Spanish Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils composition. Industrial Crops and Products, 24, 253-263. (Pubitemid 44869011)
59. Rota MC, Herrera A, Martínez RM, Sotomayor JA, Jordan MJ. (2008) Antimicrobial activity and chemical composition of Thymus vulgaris, Thymus zygis and Thymus hyemalis essential oils. Food Control, 19, 681-687.
60. Imelouane B, Amhamdi H, Wathelet JP, Ankit M, Khedid K, El Bachri A. (2009) Oil of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) from Eastern Morocco. International Journal of Agricultural Biology, 11, 205-208.
61. Marzouk B, Edziri H, Haloui I, Issawi M, Chraief I, El-Ouni M, Fnina N, Marzouk Z. (2009) Chemical composition, antibacterial and antioxidant activities of a new chemotype of Tunisian Thymus vulgaris oils growing in Sayada. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, 7, 263-267.
62. Arraiza MP, Andres MR, Arrabal C, Lopez JV. (2009) Seasonal variation of essential oil yield and composition of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) grown in Castilla ? La Mancha (Central Spain). Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 360-362.
63. Sqalli H, El Ouarti A, Farah A, Ennabili A, Haggoud A, Ibnsouda S, Houari A, Iraqui I. (2009) Antibacterial activity of Thymus pallidus Batt. and determination of the chemical composition of its essential oil. Acta Botanica Gallica, 156, 303-310.
64. Perez-Sanchez R, Ubera JL, Lafont F, Galvez C. (2008) Composition and variability of the essential oil in Thymus zygis from Southern Spain. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 20, 192-200. (Pubitemid 351691754)
65. Hazzit M, Baaliouamer A, Veríssimo AR, Faleiro ML, Miguel MG. (2009) Chemical composition and biological activities of Algerian Thymus oils. Food Chemistry, 116, 714-721.
66. Ben Bnina E, Hammami S, Daami-Remadi M, Cheraif I, Hajjlaoui H, Ben Jannet H, Ben Said M, Mighri Z. (2009) Composition and antimicrobial activities of essential oils from the aerial parts and flowers of Thymus hirtus W. growing in Tunisia. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 567-572.
67. De Feo V, Bruno M, Napolitano BTF, Senatore F. (2003) Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils from Thymus spinulosus Ten. (Lamiaceae). Journal of Agricultural Food and Chemistry, 51, 3849-3853.
68. Bini Maleci L, Genttli L, Pinetti A, Bellesia F, Servettaz O. (1999) Morphological and phytochemical characters of Thymus striatus Vahl growing in Italy. Plant Biosystems, 133, 137-144.
69. Ait M'Barek L, Ait Mouse H, Jaâfari A, Aboufatima R, Benharref A, Kamal M, Bénard J, El Abbadi N, Bensalah M, Gamouh A, Chait A, Dalal A, Zyad A. (2007) Cytotoxic effect of essential oil of thyme (Thymus broussonettii) on the IGR-OV1 tumor cells resistant to chemotherapy. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 40, 1537-1544.
70. Kabouche A, Kabouche Z, Bruneau C. (2005) Analysis of the essential oil of Thymus numidicus (Poiret) from Algeria. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 20, 235-236. (Pubitemid 40347971)
71. Hadef Y, Kaloustian J, Chefrour A, Mikail C, Abou L, Giodani R, Nicolay A, Portugal H (2007) Chemical composition and variability of the essential oil of Thymus numidicus Poir. from Algeria. Acta Botanica Gallica, 154, 265-274. (Pubitemid 46961487)
72. Saidj F, Rezzoug S-A, Bentahar F, Boutekedjiret C. (2008) Chemical composition and insecticidal properties of Thymus numidicus (Poiret) essential oil from Algeria. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 11, 397-405.
73. Laouer H, Boulaacheb N, Akkal S, Meierhenrich UJ, Baldovini N, Prado S. (2009) Composition and in vitro antimicrobial activities of the essential oils of two populations of Thymus numidicus Poiret. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 374-377.
74. Ghannadia A, Ebrahim Sajjadi S, Kabouche A, Kabouche Z. (2004) Thymus fontanesii Boiss. & Reut. - A potential source of thymol-rich essential oil in North Africa. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung, 59, 187-189.
75. Hazzit M, Baaliouamer A. (2009) Composition of the essential oils of the leaves and flowers of Thymus pallescens de Noe and Origanum floribundum Munby from Algeria. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 267-270.
76. Hazzit M, Baaliouamer A. (2009) Variation of essential oil yield and composition of Thymus pallescens de Noé from Algeria. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 21, 162-165.
77. Bader A, Flamini G, Cioni PL, Morelli I. (2001) Thymus richardii Pers. subsp. nitidus (Guss.) Jalas: A new Thymus type rich in β-bisabolene. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 13, 8-10.
78. Corticchiato M, Tomi F, Bernardini AF, Casanova J. (1998) Composition and infraspecific variability of essential oil from Thymus herba barona Lois. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 26, 915-932. (Pubitemid 28457596)
79. Juliano C, Mattana A, Usai M. (2000) Composition and in vitro antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Thymus herba-barona Loisel growing wild in Sardinia. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 12, 516-522.
80. De Gioannis B, Marongiu B, Porcedda S. (2001) Isolation of Thymus herba-barona volatiles by Supercritical Fluid Extraction. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 13, 240-244. (Pubitemid 32819386)
81. Usai M, Atzei A, Pintore G, Casanova J. (2003) Composition and variability of the essential oil of Sardinian Thymus herba-barona Loisel. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 18, 21-25. (Pubitemid 36131443)
82. Rossi P-G, Berti L, Panighi J, Luciani A, Maury J, Muselli A, de Rocca Serra D, Gonny M, Bolla J-M (2007) Antibacterial action of essential oils from Corsica. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 19, 176-182. (Pubitemid 46725637)
83. De Martino L, Bruno M, Formisano C, De Feo V, Napolitan F, Rosselli S, Senatore F. (2009) Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oils from two species of Thymus growing wild in Southern Italy. Molecules, 14, 4614-4624.
84. Michet A, Chalchat J-C, Figuérédo G, Thebaud G, Billy F, Petel G. (2008) Chemotypes in the volatiles of wild thyme (Thymus pulegioides L.). Journal of Essential Oil Research, 20, 101-103. (Pubitemid 351462492)
85. Jalas J. (1972) Thymus. In Flora Europaea. Vol. 3, Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA (Eds). Cambridge University Press, pp. 172-182.
86. Heywood VH, DeFilipps RA. (1972) Thymus. In Flora Europaea. Vol. 3, Tutin TG, Heywood VH, Burges NA, Moore DM, Valentine DH, Walters SM, Webb DA (Eds). Cambridge University Press. p. 170.
87. Pottier-Alapetite G. (1981) Flore de la Tunisie (Angiospermes- Dicotylédones Gamopétales). Publications Scientifiques Tunisiennes (Programme Flore et Végétation Tunisiennes), Tunis.
88. Press JR. (1994) Labiatae. In Flora of Madeira. Press JR, Short MJ (Eds). HMSO.
89. Morales Valverde R. (1997) Synopsis of the genus Thymus L. in the Mediterranean area. Lagascalia, 19, 249-262.
90. Morales Valverde R. (2010) Thymus L. In Flora Iberica Plantas Vasculares de la Peninsula Iberica e Islas Baleares. Vol. XII. Morales R, Quintanar A, Cabezas F, Pujadas AJ, Cirujano S. (Eds), Castroviejo (coord.). Real Jardín Botánico, CSIC. Madrid. pp. 349-409.
91. Costa JC, Capelo J, Jardim R, Sequeira M, Espírito-Santo D, Lousã M, Fontinha S, Aguiar C, Rivas-Martínez S. (2004) Catálogo sintaxonómico e florístico das comunidades vegetais da Madeira e Porto Santo. Quercetea, 6, 61-185.
92. Pinto Gomes C, Pardo FMV, Paiva-Ferreira R, Ramos S, Doncel E. (2006) Biosystematic study of the subsection Thymastra (Nyman ex Velen.) R. Morales of the Thymus L. genus (Lamiaceae). Acta Botanica Gallica, 153, 355-364.
93. International Organization for Standardization (http://www.iso.org)
94. Association Française de Normalisation (http://www.afnor.org)
95. Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA) (http://www. femaflavor.org)
96. 6th Edition of Food Chemical Codex (http://www.usp.org/fcc)
97. European Cooperative Programme for Plant Genetic Resources (http://www.ecpgr.cgiar.org)
98. European Medicines Agency (http://www.ema.europa.eu)
99. European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (http://www.escop.com)
100. World Health Organization (http://www.who.int/en)