Germany, international justice and the twentieth century

History and Memory

Volumn 17, Issue 1-2, 2005, Pages 45-86

  Betts, Paul ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77956245839     PISSN: 0935560X     EISSN: 15271994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/ham.2005.0011     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Eberhard Jaeckel, Das deutsche Jahrhundert: Eine historische Bilanz (Frankfurt/ Main, 1999).
2. Most directly on this theme is Richard Bessel and Dirk Schumann, eds., Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s (New York, 2003).
3. See also Hanna Schissler, ed., The Miracle Years: A Cultural History of West Germany, 1949-1968 (Princeton, 2001)
4. Robert G. Moeller, ed., West Germany under Construction: Politics, Society and Culture in the Adenauer Era (Ann Arbor, 1996).
5. Niall Ferguson, The Pity of War (New York, 1998), 458-62.
6. See for example Jonathan Glover, Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century (London, 1999).
7. Mark Mazower, "Violence and the State in the Twentieth Century," American Historical Review 107, no. 4 (Oct. 2002): 1158-78.
8. Mark Mazower, "The Strange Triumph of Human Rights, 1933-1950," Historical Journal 47, no. 2 (June 2004): 381.
9. Lucien Wolf, "Interventions on Grounds of Humanity," in idem, ed., Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question (London, 1919), 6-62.
10. Not that the Serbs did not try. See for example R. A. Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities Committed by the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First Invasion of Serbia (London, 1916).
11. James F. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg: The Politics and Diplomacy of Punishing War Criminals of the First World War (Westport, CT, 1982), 148-63.
12. Otto Kirchheimer, Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends (Princeton, 1961), 336
13. A. James McAdams, Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification (Princeton, 1993), 43.
14. Quoted in Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 8.
15. Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals (Princeton, 2000), 60-75.
16. H. W. V. Temperley, A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, vol. 2, The Settlement with Germany (London, 1920), 11
17. Annika Mombauer, The Origins of the First World War: Controversies and Consensus (London, 2002), 42.
18. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 12.
19. Manfrede F. Boemeke, "Woodrow Wilson's Image of Germany, the War- Guilt Question, and the Treaty of Versailles," in Manfred F. Boemeke, Gerald D. Feldman and Elisabeth Glaser, eds., The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years (New York, 1998), 603-14.
20. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 98-112.
21. John Horne and Alan Kramer, German Atrocities: A History of Denial (New Haven, 2001), 223.
22. For background see Michael Geyer, "Insurrectionary Warfare: The German Debate about a Levée en Masse in October 1918," Journal of Modern History 73, no. 3 (Sept. 2001): 459-527.
23. German White Book Concerning the Responsibility of the Authors of the War (1919; New York, 1924), 10.
24. Geoffrey Best, Humanity in Warfare: The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflict (London, 1980), 237.
25. Isabel V. Hull, "Military Culture and the Production of 'Final Solutions' in the Colonies," in Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan, eds., The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 2003), 141-62.
26. Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 148.
27. Michael Dreyer and Oliver Lembcke, Die deutsche Diskussion um die Kriegsschuldfrage 1918/1919 (Berlin, 1993), 101-221.
28. Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 329.
29. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 78.
30. Geoffrey Robertson, Crimes against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (London, 2002), 227;
31. Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 329.
32. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 126;
33. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 80-82.
34. Holger H. Herwig, "Clio Deceived: Patriotic Self-Censorship in Germany after the Great War," in Keith Wilson, ed., Forging the Collective Memory: Government and International Historians through Two World Wars (Providence, RI, and Oxford, 1996), 87-127.
35. In fact, Göring first met Hitler at a nationalist rally against French demands for the extradition of German war criminals. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 60.
36. Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning and Recovery, trans. Jefferson Chase (London, 2002), 189-288.
37. Carole Fink, "The Minorities Question and the Paris Peace Conference: The Polish Minority Treaty, June 28, 1919," in Boemeke, Feldman and Glaser, eds., The Treaty of Versailles, 249.
38. Carole Fink, "Defender of Minorities: Germany in the League of Nations, 1926-1933," Central European History 5, no. 4 (Dec. 1972): 330-36.
39. For background, Erwin Kelmes, Der europäische Nationalitätenkongress, 1925-1938 (Cologne, 1958).
40. Fritz Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War (1961; New York, 1967), 120-54.
41. L. Preuss, "National Socialist Conceptions of International Law," American Political Science Review 29, no. 4 (Aug. 1935): 594-609
42. Mazower, "Strange Triumph," 384.
43. Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, 366-71.
44. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 146.
45. Albert Speer, Spandau: The Secret Diaries, trans. Richard and Clara Winston (New York, 1976), 13.
46. In fact, the vast majority of war crimes trials were conducted by national courts and tribunals, whether in zones of former enemy territory occupied by victorious forces, or in the victors' own territory or near scenes of allegations. Best, Humanity in Warfare, 291.
47. Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 238.
48. Arieh J. Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of Punishment (Chapel Hill, NC, 1998), 6-26. Stalin, for his part, preferred war crimes trials for propaganda reasons.
49. Ann and John Tusa, The Nuremberg Trial (London, 1983), 21
50. Donald Bloxham, Genocide on Trial: War Crimes Trials and the Formation of Holocaust History and Memory (Oxford, 2001), 6.
51. Quotes from Mazower, "Strange Triumph," 387, 385.
52. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 174.
53. Best, Humanity in Warfare, 290.
54. Michael R. Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 1945-1946: A Documentary History (New York, 1997), 242.
55. The British influence is discussed in Kochavi, Prelude to Nuremberg, 92-137.
56. Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 21.
57. R. K.Woetzel, The Nuremberg Trials in International Law (London, 1962), 31-34.
58. Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 12.
59. Best, Humanity in Warfare, 309.
60. Quoted in Marrus, The Nuremberg War Crimes Trial, 185.
61. Quoted in Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 234.
62. Devin O. Pendas, "'Law, Not Vengeance': Human Rights, the Rule of Law and the Claims of Memory in German Holocaust Trials," in Mark Philip Bradley and Patrice Petro, eds., Truth Claims: Representation and Human Rights (New Brunswick, NJ, 2002), 23-41;
63. Adelbert Rückerl, NS-Verbrechen vor Gericht: Versuch einer Vergangenheitsbewältigung (Heidelberg, 1984).
64. See Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, 145;
65. Istvan Deak, Jan Gross and Tony Judt, eds., The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath (Princeton, 2000), 12.
66. Jeffrey Herf, Divided Memory: The Nazi Past in the Two Germanys (Cambridge, MA, 1997), 162-200.
67. Bloxham, Genocide on Trial, 152.
68. See also Tony Kushner, The Holocaust in the Liberal Imagination: A Social and Cultural History (Oxford, 1994), 226.
69. Wilbourn E. Benton and George Grimm, eds., Nuremberg: German Views of the War Trials (Dallas, 1955).
70. Gerd R. Ueberschär, ed., Der Nationalsozialismus vor Gericht: Die allierten Prozesse gegen Kriegsverbrecher und Soldaten, 1943-1952 (Frankfurt/Main, 1999).
71. One scholar has gone so far as to say that: "The notion of a state based on law clearly finds its most significant manifestation in the German judiciary [of the Federal Republic], whose structure and jurisdiction offer the most extensive legal protection of any judicial system in the world." Donald P. Kommers, "The Judiciary," in Carl-Christoph Schweizer et al., eds., Politics and Government in Germany, 1944-1994: Basic Documents (Providence, RI, and Oxford, 1995), 272.
72. Dagmar Barnouw, Germany 1945: Views of War and Violence (Bloomington, 1996);
73. Cornelia Brink, Ikonen der Vernichtung: Öffentlicher Gebrauch von Photographien aus nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslagern nach 1945 (Berlin, 1998).
74. Herf, Divided Memory, 267-302.
75. See also Ulrich Brochhagen, Nach Nürnberg: Vergangenheitsbewältigung und Westintegration in der Ära Adenauer (Berlin, 1999).
76. See in this volume Robert G. Moeller, "Germans as Victims? Thoughts on a Post-Cold War History of World War II's Legacies," 163 below.
77. See too Frank Biess, "Between Amnesty and Anti-Communism: The West German Kamaradenschinder Trials, 1948-1960," in Omer Bartov, Atina Grossmann and Mary Nolan, eds., Crimes of War: Guilt and Denial in the Twentieth Century (New York, 2002), 138-57.
78. Gilad Margalit, "Der Luftangriff auf Dresden: Seine Bedeutung für die Erinnerungspolitik der DDR und für Herauskristallisierung einer historischen Kriegserinnerung im Westen," in Susanne Düwell and Matthias Schmidt, eds., Narrative der Shoah: Repräsentationen der Vergangenheit in Historiographie, Kunst und Politik (Padersborn, 2002), 189-208;
79. Brown Book: War and Nazi Criminals in West Germany, published by the National Council of the National Front (East Berlin, 1965).
80. Lora Wildenthal, "The Origins of the West German Human Rights Movement, 1945-1961," ms., http://www.humanrights.uconn.edu/rese-papers.html.
81. Dan Diner, Verkehrte Welten: Antiamerikanismus in Deutschland: Ein historischer Essay (Frankfurt/Main, 1993), 141-47.
82. Judith Shklar, Legalism: Law, Morals and Political Trials (Cambridge, MA, 1986)
83. quoted in Erna Paris, Long Shadows: Truth, Lies and History (London, 2001), 409.
84. Best, Humanity in Warfare, 221.
85. Fink, "Defender of Minorities," 357.
86. Mazower, "Strange Triumph," 389.
87. See too Kenneth Cmiel, "The Recent History of Human Rights," American Historical Review 109, no.1 (Feb. 2004), esp. 128-29.
88. Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA, 2001), 108-38.
89. Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 27.
90. Josef Foschepoth, "German Reactions to Defeat and Occupation," in Moeller, ed., West Germany under Construction, 78.
91. Pertti Ahonen, "Domestic Constraints on West German Ostpolitik: The Role of the Expellee Organizations in the Adenauer Era," Central European History 31, nos.1/2 (spring, 1998): 31-64;
92. Robert G. Moeller, "Sinking Ships, the Lost Heimat and Broken Taboos: Günther Grass and the Politics of Memory in Contemporary Germany," Contemporary European History 11, no. 2 (May 2002): 154.
93. Rainer Schulze, "The German Refugees and the Expellees from the East and the Creation of a Western German Identity after World War II," in Phillipp Ther and Ana Siljak, eds., Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944-1948 (London, 2001), 307-25.
94. Priscilla B. Hayner, "Fifteen Truth Commissions - 1974-1994: A Comparative Study," Human Rights Quarterly 16, no. 4 (1994)
95. Henry J. Steiner, ed., Truth Commissions: A Comparative Assessment (Cambridge, MA, 1997).
96. Jennifer A. Yoder, "Truth without Reconciliation: An Appraisal of the Enquete Commission on the SED Dictatorship in Germany," German Politics 8, no. 3 (Dec. 1999): 61.
97. Jennifer Yoder, From East Germans to Germans? The New Postcommunist Elites (Durham, NC, and London, 1999), 30.
98. Claus Offe, "Disqualification, Retribution, Restitution: Dilemmas of Justice in Post-Communist Transititions," The Journal of Political Philosophy 1, no. 1 (1993): 20.
99. McAdams, Germany Divided, 1.
100. Yoder, "Truth without Reconciliation," 67-69.
101. quoted in McAdams, Germany Divided, 90.
102. McAdams, Germany Divided, 3.
103. Robert Gellately, The Gestapo and German Society (Oxford, 1990).
104. Erich Honecker, Politische Erklärung von den 27. Grossen Strafkammer des Berliner Landgerichtes am 3. Oktober 1992 (Hamburg, 1992), 1415
105. quoted in Anne Sa'adah, Germany's Second Chance: Trust, Social Justice and Democratization (Cambridge MA, 1998), 183.
106. Charles S. Maier, Dissolution: The Crisis of Communism and the End of East Germany (Princeton, 1997), 324.
107. McAdams, Germany Divided, 5.
108. Offe, "Disqualification, Retribution, Restitution," 21.
109. Not that this perception was altogether false. One West German official, for example, made no bones about admitting that the post-reunification project to overcome East Germany's "culture of distrust" was nothing more than the "reeducation" of the East. Yoder, From East Germans to Germans? 108.
110. Cited in McAdams, Germany Divided, 6.
111. "Interview mit Joachim Gauck," Deutschland-Archiv 28, no. 11 (Nov. 1995), 1128-32.
112. As quoted in Sa'adah, Germany's Second Chance, 149.
113. Yoder, From East Germans to Germans? 57.
114. Charles S. Maier, "German War, German Peace," in Mary Fulbrook, ed., German History since 1800 (London, 1997), 553.
115. Taz, 6 Sept. 1990, cited in Silke Schumann, Vernichten oder Offenlegen? Zur Entstehung des Stasi-Unterlagen-Gesetzes (Berlin, 1995), 17.
116. McAdams, Germany Divided, 49.
117. Gisela Karau and Jens Vetter, Gauck-Opfer (Berlin, 1995).
118. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (hereafter FAZ), 8 March 1995, 8, cited in Yoder, "Truth without Reconciliation," 76.
119. FAZ, 6 Aug. 1995, 3, cited in Yoder, From East Germans to Germans? 13.
120. See too "Stolz aufs eigene Leben," Der Spiegel, 27/1995, 40-64.
121. McAdams, Germany Divided, 167.
122. Bärbel Bohley, Die Zeit, no. 14 (1992), 44.
123. Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance, 8-24.
124. John Borneman, Settling Accounts: Violence, Justice and Accountability in Postsocialist Europe (Princeton, 1997), 5.
125. Yoder, "Truth without Reconciliation," 77.
126. Herf, Divided Memory, 7.
127. Bruce Ackermann, The Future of Liberal Revolution (New Haven, 1992).
128. Ronald Steel, "Prologue: 1919-1945-1989," in Boemeke, Feldman and Glaser, eds., The Treaty of Versailles, 21.
129. Quoted in Alan Sharp, "The Genie that Would Not Go Back in the Bottle: National Self-Determination and the Legacy of the First World War and the Peace Settlement," in Seamus Dunn and T. G. Fraser, eds., Europe and Ethnicity: World War I and Contemporary Ethnic Conflict (London, 1996), 27.
130. Norbert Frei, "Before and After Nuremberg," Journal of Contemporary History 38, no. 2 (2003): 333-35.
131. Mary Ellen O'Connell, "The UN, NATO and International Law after Kosovo," Human Rights Quarterly 22, no. 1 (Feb. 2000): 57-89.
132. Jürgen Habermas, "Bestialität und Humanität," Die Zeit, 29 April 1999, 1.
133. Ulrich Beck, "Über den Postnationalen Krieg," Blätter für deutsche und internationale Politik 8 (Aug. 1999): 245-86
134. cited in Adrian Hyde-Price, Germany and European Order: Enlarging NATO and the EU (Manchester, 2000), 157.
135. Steel, "Prologue," 31.
136. William Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy (Berkeley, 1980)
137. Alan Brinkley, "The Concept of an American Century," in R. Laurence Moore and Maurizio Vaudagna, eds., The American Century in Europe (Ithaca, 2003), 9.
138. Gary Cohen, The Keystone Kommandos," Atlantic Monthly (Feb. 2002): 46-59.
139. See for example Ladislas Farago, The Game of the Foxes: The Untold Story of German Espionage in the United States and Great Britain during World War II (New York, 1971);
140. David Kahn, Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (New York, 1978).
141. Louis Fischer, Nazi Saboteurs on Trial: A Military Tribunal and American Law (Lawrence, 2003).
142. Max Paul Friedman, "Military Tribunals on Trial," H-NET Review, HGerman/ net.msu.edu (Sept. 2003).
143. Mazower, "Strange Triumph," 397.
144. "Intellektuelle beklagen deutschen Antiamerikanismus," FAZ, 10 Aug. 2002, 1.
145. Robert Kagan, "Power and Weakness," Policy Review 113 (June/July 2002): 3-28.
146. Thomas Assheuer, "Schlagschatten der Freiheit," Die Zeit, 9 June 2004, 41.
147. Quoted interview in Jean Edward Smith, Lucius Clay: An American Life (New York, 1990), 297.
148. For example, Karl Holl, Pazifismus in Deutschland (Frankfurt/Main, 1988);
149. Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914 (Cambridge, 2000);
150. Michael Geyer, "Cold War Angst: West German Opposition to Rearmament and Nuclear Weapons," in Schissler, The Miracle Years, 376-408;
151. and most recently, Ute Frevert, Eurovisionen: Ansichten guter Europäer im 19 und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt/ Main, 2003).
152. Maier, "German War and Peace," 539-55.
153. Herf, Divided Memory, 373.
154. Moeller, "Sinking Ships," 171-72.
155. Andreas Huyssen, "Air War Legacies: From Dresden to Baghdad," New German Critique 90 (Fall 2003): 163-76
156. well as Moeller, "Sinking Ships," 173-81.