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Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 57-89

The UN, NATO, and international law after Kosovo

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EID: 7444268028     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2000.0012     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (52)

References (206)
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    • See infra text accompanying notes 155-56
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    • UN CHARTER, art. 2, ¶ 4, signed 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 Oct. 1945)
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    • See Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), 1986 I.C.J. 14 (27 June) [hereinafter The Nicaragua Case]. For perhaps the best one-volume treatment of the international law governing the use of force, see DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 102
    • See Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), 1986 I.C.J. 14 (27 June) [hereinafter The Nicaragua Case]. For perhaps the best one-volume treatment of the international law governing the use of force, see DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 102.
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    • Force and Arms
    • Oscar Schachter & Christopher C. Joyner eds.
    • Article 53 refers to "regional arrangements" and "regional agencies," not "regional security organizations," the term used in this paper. Id. art. 53. No definitions of the Article 53 terms appear in the Charter, nor has either the Security Council or the General Assembly developed a definition. See John F. Murphy, Force and Arms, in UNITED NATIONS LEGAL ORDER 247, 297 (Oscar Schachter & Christopher C. Joyner eds., 1995). As will be reviewed below, some organizations declare themselves Chapter VIII organizations, while others seek to avoid such designation. Yet, there is no sound reason based on textual interpretation and drafting history to leave any organization with an interest in security out of Chapter VIII.
    • (1995) United Nations Legal Order , pp. 247
    • Murphy, J.F.1
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    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 51.
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    • Id.
    • Id.
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    • Id. art. 24.
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    • The Nicaragua Case, supra note 6
    • The Nicaragua Case, supra note 6.
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    • See id. at 103, 195
    • See id. at 103, 195.
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    • See id. at 105, 199
    • See id. at 105, 199.
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    • See id. at 103, 195
    • See id. at 103, 195.
  • 18
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    • 4 Apr. 1949, 63 Stat. 2241, 34 U.N.T.S. 243 (entered into force 24 Aug. 1949), reprinted Supp.
    • See North Atlantic Treaty, 4 Apr. 1949, 63 Stat. 2241, 34 U.N.T.S. 243 (entered into force 24 Aug. 1949), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. 159 (Supp. 1949).
    • (1949) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.43 , pp. 159
  • 19
    • 85037447759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Warsaw Treaty Organization was created by the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance ("Warsaw Pact"), 14 May 1955, 219 U.N.T.S. 3, 24 (entered into force 6 June 1955)
    • The Warsaw Treaty Organization was created by the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance ("Warsaw Pact"), 14 May 1955, 219 U.N.T.S. 3, 24 (entered into force 6 June 1955).
  • 21
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    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 54
    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 54.
  • 22
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    • note
    • Treaty Establishing the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, 18 June 1981, art. 8(4), 1338 U.N.T.S. 97, 20 I.L.M. 1166. Article 8(4) of its constituent instrument states: The Defence and Security Committee shall have responsibility for coordinating the efforts of Member States for collective defence and the preservation of peace and security against external aggression and for the development of close ties among the Member States of the Organisation in matters of external defence and security, including measures to combat the activities of mercenaries, operating with or without the support of internal or national elements, in the exercise of the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations. Id.
  • 24
    • 84994336418 scopus 로고
    • The United States Invasion of Grenada: Stranger than Fiction
    • Instead, the State Department justified its actions on three different grounds: rescue of nationals, a request from the Organization of Eastern Carribean States, and a request from Grenada's government. See John Quigley, The United States Invasion of Grenada: Stranger than Fiction, 18 U. MIAMI INTER-AM. L. REV. 271 (1987).
    • (1987) U. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev. , vol.18 , pp. 271
    • Quigley, J.1
  • 25
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    • G.A. Res. 3817, U.N. GAOR, 38th Sess., Supp. No. 47, U.N. Doc. A/38/47
    • See The Situation in Grenada, G.A. Res. 3817, U.N. GAOR, 38th Sess., Supp. No. 47, at 19, U.N. Doc. A/38/47 (1983); U.N. Assembly Adopts Measure, "Deeply Deploring" Invasion of Isle, N.Y. TIMES, 3 Nov. 1983, at A21.
    • (1983) The Situation in Grenada , pp. 19
  • 26
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    • U.N. Assembly Adopts Measure, "Deeply Deploring" Invasion of Isle
    • 3 Nov.
    • See The Situation in Grenada, G.A. Res. 3817, U.N. GAOR, 38th Sess., Supp. No. 47, at 19, U.N. Doc. A/38/47 (1983); U.N. Assembly Adopts Measure, "Deeply Deploring" Invasion of Isle, N.Y. TIMES, 3 Nov. 1983, at A21.
    • (1983) N.Y. Times
  • 27
    • 85037484583 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 22 Nov.
    • Treaty on Collective Security ("Tashkent Agreement"), 15 May 1992, printed in Ross. Gazeta, 23 May 1992, available on 〈http://www.acda.gov/factshee/conwpn/ tashkent.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999). The Tashkent Agreement is described in Vasili Kononenko, Heads of Government Grapple Over CIS Charter in Attempt to Salvage Commonwealth, Russ. PRESS DIG., 13 Nov. 1992. See also Pavel Baev, Peacekeeping and Conflict Management in the CIS, in SECURITY DILEMMAS IN RUSSIA AND EURASIA 209 (Roy Allison & Christopher Bluth eds., 1997).
    • (1999)
  • 28
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    • Heads of Government Grapple over CIS Charter in Attempt to Salvage Commonwealth
    • 13 Nov.
    • Treaty on Collective Security ("Tashkent Agreement"), 15 May 1992, printed in Ross. Gazeta, 23 May 1992, available on 〈http://www.acda.gov/factshee/conwpn/ tashkent.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999). The Tashkent Agreement is described in Vasili Kononenko, Heads of Government Grapple Over CIS Charter in Attempt to Salvage Commonwealth, Russ. PRESS DIG., 13 Nov. 1992. See also Pavel Baev, Peacekeeping and Conflict Management in the CIS, in SECURITY DILEMMAS IN RUSSIA AND EURASIA 209 (Roy Allison & Christopher Bluth eds., 1997).
    • (1992) Russ. Press Dig.
    • Kononenko, V.1
  • 29
    • 10044241428 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Peacekeeping and Conflict Management in the CIS
    • Roy Allison & Christopher Bluth eds.
    • Treaty on Collective Security ("Tashkent Agreement"), 15 May 1992, printed in Ross. Gazeta, 23 May 1992, available on 〈http://www.acda.gov/factshee/conwpn/ tashkent.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999). The Tashkent Agreement is described in Vasili Kononenko, Heads of Government Grapple Over CIS Charter in Attempt to Salvage Commonwealth, Russ. PRESS DIG., 13 Nov. 1992. See also Pavel Baev, Peacekeeping and Conflict Management in the CIS, in SECURITY DILEMMAS IN RUSSIA AND EURASIA 209 (Roy Allison & Christopher Bluth eds., 1997).
    • (1997) Security Dilemmas in Russia and Eurasia , pp. 209
    • Baev, P.1
  • 30
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    • U.N. SCOR, ¶ 26, U.N. Doc. S/1999/514 (1999);
    • See Report of the Secretary General on the Situation in Tajikistan, U.N. SCOR, ¶ 26, U.N. Doc. S/1999/514 (1999); Sherman W. Garnett, Russia and Its Borderlands: A Geography of Violence, 27 PARAMETERS 4, 9-11 (1997).
    • Report of the Secretary General on the Situation in Tajikistan
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    • Russia and Its Borderlands: A Geography of Violence
    • See Report of the Secretary General on the Situation in Tajikistan, U.N. SCOR, ¶ 26, U.N. Doc. S/1999/514 (1999); Sherman W. Garnett, Russia and Its Borderlands: A Geography of Violence, 27 PARAMETERS 4, 9-11 (1997).
    • (1997) Parameters , vol.27 , pp. 4
    • Garnett, S.W.1
  • 32
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    • See S.C. Res. 1240, U.N. SCOR, 4004th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1240 (1999); S.C. Res. 1099, U.N. SCOR, 3752d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1099 (1997); S.C. Res. 1113, U.N. SCOR, 3788th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1113 (1997); S.C. Res. 1128, U.N. SCOR, 3816th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1128 (1997); S.C. Res. 1138, U.N. SCOR, 3833d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1138 (1997)
    • See S.C. Res. 1240, U.N. SCOR, 4004th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1240 (1999); S.C. Res. 1099, U.N. SCOR, 3752d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1099 (1997); S.C. Res. 1113, U.N. SCOR, 3788th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1113 (1997); S.C. Res. 1128, U.N. SCOR, 3816th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1128 (1997); S.C. Res. 1138, U.N. SCOR, 3833d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1138 (1997).
  • 33
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    • Former Soviet Republics: Ethnic Conflicts, Turmoil Persist; Observer Status Granted to CIS
    • June hereinafter Former Soviet Republics
    • See Former Soviet Republics: Ethnic Conflicts, Turmoil Persist; Observer Status Granted to CIS, UN MONTHLY CHRON., June 1994, at 36 [hereinafter Former Soviet Republics].
    • (1994) UN Monthly Chron. , pp. 36
  • 34
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    • See generally UN CHARTER, supra note 4, Ch. VIII
    • See generally UN CHARTER, supra note 4, Ch. VIII).
  • 35
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    • See HILAIRE MCCOURBREY & NIGEL D. WHITE, INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CIVIL WARS 45 (1995); THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS: A COMMENTARY 685 (Bruno Simma ed., 1994) [hereinafter A COMMENTARY]; Michael Akehurst, Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States, 42 BRIT. Y.B. INT'L L. 175 (1967).
    • (1995) International Organizations and Civil Wars , pp. 45
    • Mccourbrey, H.1    White, N.D.2
  • 36
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    • Bruno Simma ed., hereinafter A COMMENTARY
    • See HILAIRE MCCOURBREY & NIGEL D. WHITE, INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CIVIL WARS 45 (1995); THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS: A COMMENTARY 685 (Bruno Simma ed., 1994) [hereinafter A COMMENTARY]; Michael Akehurst, Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States, 42 BRIT. Y.B. INT'L L. 175 (1967).
    • (1994) The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary , pp. 685
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    • Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States
    • See HILAIRE MCCOURBREY & NIGEL D. WHITE, INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND CIVIL WARS 45 (1995); THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS: A COMMENTARY 685 (Bruno Simma ed., 1994) [hereinafter A COMMENTARY]; Michael Akehurst, Enforcement Action by Regional Agencies, with Special Reference to the Organization of American States, 42 BRIT. Y.B. INT'L L. 175 (1967).
    • (1967) Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. , vol.42 , pp. 175
    • Akehurst, M.1
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    • A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 686
    • A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 686.
  • 39
    • 85037454459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Charter of the Organization of American States, 30 Apr. 1948, 2 U.S.T. 2394, 119 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 13 Dec. 1951), reprinted in 33 I.L.M. 981 (1994) [hereinafter OAS Charter
    • See Charter of the Organization of American States, 30 Apr. 1948, 2 U.S.T. 2394, 119 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 13 Dec. 1951), reprinted in 33 I.L.M. 981 (1994) [hereinafter OAS Charter).
  • 40
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    • See Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance ("Rio Treaty"), 2 Sept. 1947, 62 Stat. 1681, 2 U.N.T.S. 77 (entered into force 3 Dec. 1948), reprinted in 14 I.L.M. 1122 (1975)
    • See Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance ("Rio Treaty"), 2 Sept. 1947, 62 Stat. 1681, 2 U.N.T.S. 77 (entered into force 3 Dec. 1948), reprinted in 14 I.L.M. 1122 (1975).
  • 41
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    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 53, ¶ 1
    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 53, ¶ 1.
  • 42
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    • Regionale Friedenssicherung im Lichter von Kapitel VIII der Satzung der Vereinten Nationen: Juristische und Politisiche Probleme
    • OAS Charter, supra note 32, art. 1; Former Soviet Republics, supra note 28, at 36; Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe: Declarations and Decisions from Helsinki Summit, 10 July 1992, printed in 31 I.L.M. 1385 (1992) [hereinafter CSCE Declarations]. Winrich Kühne ed.
    • See OAS Charter, supra note 32, art. 1; Former Soviet Republics, supra note 28, at 36; Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe: Declarations and Decisions from Helsinki Summit, 10 July 1992, printed in 31 I.L.M. 1385 (1992) [hereinafter CSCE Declarations]. See also Englebert Theuermann, Regionale Friedenssicherung im Lichter von Kapitel VIII der Satzung der Vereinten Nationen: Juristische und Politisiche Probleme, in BLAUHELME IN EINER TURBULENTEN WELT 231, 245 (Winrich Kühne ed., 1993);
    • (1993) Blauhelme in Einer Turbulenten Welt , pp. 231
    • Theuermann, E.1
  • 43
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    • (visited 22 Nov. 1999) [hereinafter Charter for European Security]
    • Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Charter for European Security, 18 Nov. 1999, at Part II, ¶ ¶ 7, 11, available on 〈http;//osce.istanbul-summit.org/ charter_for_european_security.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999) [hereinafter Charter for European Security].
  • 44
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    • OAS Charter, supra note 32, art. 1
    • OAS Charter, supra note 32, art. 1.
  • 46
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    • Defensive Quarantine and the Law
    • See Leonard C. Meeker, Defensive Quarantine and the Law, 57 AM. J. INT'L L. 515-24 (1963). Meeker also argued that article 53 was not violated because, in his view, the "enforcement action" referred to in article 53 and which required Security Council authorization was only that action which states would be obligated to take. The OAS authorized the quarantine, but OAS members were not obligated to carry it out. See Id. at 519-22. Meeker's argument did not gain many adherents nor is it supported by the practice of organizations reviewed in this article. Regardless of the voluntary nature of the action, it is agreed that, unless the force is in individual or collective self-defense or with the consent of the relevant parties, only the Security Council may authorize force for other purposes. See infra text accompanying notes 81-84.
    • (1963) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.57 , pp. 515-524
    • Meeker, L.C.1
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    • The Cuban Quarantine
    • See Quincy Wright, The Cuban Quarantine, 57 AM. J. INT'L L. 546, 556-59 (1963).
    • (1963) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.57 , pp. 546
    • Wright, Q.1
  • 48
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    • According to Murphy, the drafting history of the Charter clearly supports the conclusion that all of the measures cited in Articles 41 and 42 of the Charter, which include economic sanctions, were intended to be the "enforcement action" of Article 53. See Murphy, supra note 9, at 298. See also his discussion of the dispute between the United States and the Soviet Union over the meaning of "enforcement" during the Dominican crisis of 1965. Id. at 299-300. See also PROC. AM. BRANCH INT'L L., ECONOMIC SANCTIONS AND INTERNAL ARMED CONFLICT: SOME SALIENT PROBLEMS 45, 50 (1993-1994).
    • (1993) Proc. Am. Branch Int'l L., Economic Sanctions and Internal Armed Conflict: Some Salient Problems , pp. 45
  • 49
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    • Countermeasures and Self-Defence as Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness in the International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility
    • Marina Spinedi & Bruno Simma eds.
    • See Peter Malanczuk, Countermeasures and Self-Defence as Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness in the International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility, in UNITED NATIONS CODIFICATION OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY 197, 236 (Marina Spinedi & Bruno Simma eds., 1987). Examples of economic sanctions prior to Security Council authorization include the European Union, Russian, and US economic sanctions on Yugoslavia before the Security Council ordered such sanctions. See EU Agrees to Arms, Embargo, Sanctions, Against Yugoslavia, STARS AND STRIPES, 22 Mar. 1998. The Organization of American States imposed economic sanctions on Haiti before Security Council authorization. See John M. Goshko, OAS Votes Tough Sanctions on Haiti, Seeks to Send Observer Mission; Junta is Pressured to Resume Talks, WASH. POST, 10 Sept. 1991, at A1. The United States imposed economic sanctions on Iraq immediately in the aftermath of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, before the UN mandated such sanctions. See Exec. Order No. 12,723, 55 Fed. Reg. 31,805 (1990); Exec. Order No. 12,725, 55 Fed. Reg. 33,091 (1990).
    • (1987) United Nations Codification of State Responsibility , pp. 197
    • Malanczuk, P.1
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    • EU Agrees to Arms, Embargo, Sanctions, Against Yugoslavia
    • 22 Mar.
    • See Peter Malanczuk, Countermeasures and Self-Defence as Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness in the International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility, in UNITED NATIONS CODIFICATION OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY 197, 236 (Marina Spinedi & Bruno Simma eds., 1987). Examples of economic sanctions prior to Security Council authorization include the European Union, Russian, and US economic sanctions on Yugoslavia before the Security Council ordered such sanctions. See EU Agrees to Arms, Embargo, Sanctions, Against Yugoslavia, STARS AND STRIPES, 22 Mar. 1998. The Organization of American States imposed economic sanctions on Haiti before Security Council authorization. See John M. Goshko, OAS Votes Tough Sanctions on Haiti, Seeks to Send Observer Mission; Junta is Pressured to Resume Talks, WASH. POST, 10 Sept. 1991, at A1. The United States imposed economic sanctions on Iraq immediately in the aftermath of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, before the UN mandated such sanctions. See Exec. Order No. 12,723, 55 Fed. Reg. 31,805 (1990); Exec. Order No. 12,725, 55 Fed. Reg. 33,091 (1990).
    • (1998) Stars and Stripes
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    • OAS Votes Tough Sanctions on Haiti, Seeks to Send Observer Mission; Junta is Pressured to Resume Talks
    • 10 Sept.
    • See Peter Malanczuk, Countermeasures and Self-Defence as Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness in the International Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility, in UNITED NATIONS CODIFICATION OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY 197, 236 (Marina Spinedi & Bruno Simma eds., 1987). Examples of economic sanctions prior to Security Council authorization include the European Union, Russian, and US economic sanctions on Yugoslavia before the Security Council ordered such sanctions. See EU Agrees to Arms, Embargo, Sanctions, Against Yugoslavia, STARS AND STRIPES, 22 Mar. 1998. The Organization of American States imposed economic sanctions on Haiti before Security Council authorization. See John M. Goshko, OAS Votes Tough Sanctions on Haiti, Seeks to Send Observer Mission; Junta is Pressured to Resume Talks, WASH. POST, 10 Sept. 1991, at A1. The United States imposed economic sanctions on Iraq immediately in the aftermath of Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, before the UN mandated such sanctions. See Exec. Order No. 12,723, 55 Fed. Reg. 31,805 (1990); Exec. Order No. 12,725, 55 Fed. Reg. 33,091 (1990).
    • (1991) Wash. Post
    • Goshko, J.M.1
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    • S.C. Res. 841, U.N. SCOR, 3238th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/841 (1993)
    • S.C. Res. 841, U.N. SCOR, 3238th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/841 (1993).
  • 53
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    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 54
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    • See CSCE Declarations, supra note 35, at 1392, 1400; Charter for European Security, supra note 35
    • See CSCE Declarations, supra note 35, at 1392, 1400; Charter for European Security, supra note 35.
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    • A European Amphibious Dimension?
    • Sept. available in 1997 WL 10230269
    • "Under a U.N. mandate, and with the support of the OSCE, troops from eight European nations this year participated in Operation 'Alba,' the Italian-led humanitarian protection operation in Albania." A European Amphibious Dimension?, JANE'S NAVY INT'L, 3 Sept. 1997, available in 1997 WL 10230269. See also Mike O'Connor, Foreign Troops Protect Albania, But From What?, N.Y. TIMES, 21 Apr. 1997, at A8; Jane Perlez, Italy's Troops in Albania Are Treading on Thin Ice, N.Y. TIMES, 25 Apr. 1997, at A3.
    • (1997) Jane's Navy Int'l , pp. 3
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    • Foreign Troops Protect Albania, but from What?
    • 21 Apr.
    • "Under a U.N. mandate, and with the support of the OSCE, troops from eight European nations this year participated in Operation 'Alba,' the Italian-led humanitarian protection operation in Albania." A European Amphibious Dimension?, JANE'S NAVY INT'L, 3 Sept. 1997, available in 1997 WL 10230269. See also Mike O'Connor, Foreign Troops Protect Albania, But From What?, N.Y. TIMES, 21 Apr. 1997, at A8; Jane Perlez, Italy's Troops in Albania Are Treading on Thin Ice, N.Y. TIMES, 25 Apr. 1997, at A3.
    • (1997) N.Y. Times
    • O'Connor, M.1
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    • Italy's Troops in Albania Are Treading on Thin Ice
    • 25 Apr.
    • "Under a U.N. mandate, and with the support of the OSCE, troops from eight European nations this year participated in Operation 'Alba,' the Italian-led humanitarian protection operation in Albania." A European Amphibious Dimension?, JANE'S NAVY INT'L, 3 Sept. 1997, available in 1997 WL 10230269. See also Mike O'Connor, Foreign Troops Protect Albania, But From What?, N.Y. TIMES, 21 Apr. 1997, at A8; Jane Perlez, Italy's Troops in Albania Are Treading on Thin Ice, N.Y. TIMES, 25 Apr. 1997, at A3.
    • (1997) N.Y. Times
    • Perlez, J.1
  • 59
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    • S.C. Res. 1101, U.N. SCOR, 3758th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1101 (1997)
    • S.C. Res. 1101, U.N. SCOR, 3758th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1101 (1997).
  • 61
    • 10044282793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Peacekeeping/Peacemaking Russia/CIS
    • (Moscow), 23 Feb.
    • COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES, CONCEPT ON PREVENTING AND SETTLING CONFLICTS ON THE TERRITORY OF COMMONWEALTH MEMBER-NATIONS (1996) (on file with the author). See also Bakhityar Tuzmukhamedov, Peacekeeping/Peacemaking Russia/CIS, SEGODNYA (Moscow), 23 Feb. 1996, at 9.
    • (1996) Segodnya , pp. 9
    • Tuzmukhamedov, B.1
  • 63
    • 0003999598 scopus 로고
    • For the distinction between "peacekeeping" and "peace enforcement," see Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to the Statement Adopted by the Summit Meeting of the Security Council on 31 January 1992: An Agenda For Peace, U.N. GAOR, 47th Sess., Item 10, U.N. Doc. S/24111-A/47/277 (1992) [hereinafter An Agenda For Peace]; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 565-603; N.D. WHITE, THE UNITED NATIONS AND THE MAINTENANCE OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY 50-51 (1990).
    • (1990) The United Nations and the Maintenance of International Peace and Security , pp. 50-51
    • White, N.D.1
  • 64
    • 85037489817 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., S.C. Res. 1036, U.N. SCOR, 3618th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1036 (1996). The Security Council expressed "its satisfaction with the close cooperation and coordination between UNOMIG [the United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia] and the CIS peace-keeping force . . . commending the contribution both have made to stabilize the situation in the zone of conflict. . . ." Id. (Emphasis added). Cf. S.C. Res. 1089, U.N. SCOR, 3724th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1089 (1996). The OSCE, rather than the UN, has been active in Moldova. Apparently, the Security Council has not commented on CIS peacekeeping there.
  • 65
    • 85037448734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 699-700
    • See A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 699-700.
  • 66
    • 85037480146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 701
    • See id. at 701.
  • 68
    • 0037635759 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Wippman, supra note 53, at 184-86
    • "Approval" is used here advisedly. "Authorization" is not intended because in both ECOWAS cases the Security Council did not issue resolutions until after the operations were underway. See generally KARL P. MAGYAR & EARL CONTEH-MORGAN, PEACEKEEPING IN AFRICA, ECOMOG IN LIBERIA (1998); Wippman, supra note 53, at 184-86;
    • (1998) Peacekeeping in Africa, Ecomog in Liberia
    • Magyar, K.P.1    Conteh-Morgan, E.2
  • 69
    • 10044231427 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Use of Force to Restore Democracy: International Legal Implications of the ECOWAS Intervention in Sierra Leone
    • Karsten Nowrot & Emily W. Schabacker, The Use of Force to Restore Democracy: International Legal Implications of the ECOWAS Intervention in Sierra Leone, 14 AM. U. INT'L L. REV. 321, 357 (1998).
    • (1998) Am. U. Int'l L. Rev. , vol.14 , pp. 321
    • Nowrot, K.1    Schabacker, E.W.2
  • 70
    • 85037471402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S.C. Res. 781, U.N. SCOR, 3122d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/781 (1992)
    • S.C. Res. 781, U.N. SCOR, 3122d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/781 (1992).
  • 71
    • 85037462285 scopus 로고
    • Resumption of Aid Convoys to East Bosnian Town Vowed
    • 2 Apr.
    • See, e.g., Resumption of Aid Convoys to East Bosnian Town Vowed, WASH. POST, 2 Apr. 1993, at A18.
    • (1993) Wash. Post
  • 72
    • 85037488028 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S.C. Res. 787, U.N. SCOR, 3137th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/787 (1992)
    • S.C. Res. 787, U.N. SCOR, 3137th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/787 (1992).
  • 73
    • 85037447338 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See S.C. Res. 1031, U.N. SCOR, 3607th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1031 (1995)
    • See S.C. Res. 1031, U.N. SCOR, 3607th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1031 (1995).
  • 74
    • 85037453264 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 39
    • UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 39.
  • 75
    • 85037458084 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id.
    • Id.
  • 76
    • 85037458057 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. arts. 43-49
    • See id. arts. 43-49.
  • 77
    • 85037471055 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S.C. Res. 678, U.N. SCOR, 2963d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/678 (1990)
    • S.C. Res. 678, U.N. SCOR, 2963d mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/678 (1990).
  • 78
    • 84928440394 scopus 로고
    • United Nations Law in the Gulf Conflict
    • See Oscar Schachter, United Nations Law in the Gulf Conflict, 85 AM. J. INT'L L 452, 459 (1991).
    • (1991) Am. J. Int'l L , vol.85 , pp. 452
    • Schachter, O.1
  • 79
    • 85037464418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Article 43(1) provides that "All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make available to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance and facilities." U.N. CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 43(1).
  • 81
    • 85037484069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • WHITE, supra note 49; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 565-603
    • For a comprehensive discussion of peacekeeping under international law, see WHITE, supra note 49; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 565-603.
  • 82
    • 0033418728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations to Use Force, Ceasefires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime
    • See, e.g., Jules Lobel & Michael Ratner, Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations to Use Force, Ceasefires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime, 93 AM. J. INT'L L. 142 (1999) (explaining that Security Council authorizing practice does not mention shift from Chapter VIII to VII).
    • (1999) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.93 , pp. 142
    • Lobel, J.1    Ratner, M.2
  • 83
    • 10044242273 scopus 로고
    • The Decisions of Political Organs of the United Nations and the Rule of Law
    • Ronald St. John Macdonald ed.
    • See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, art. 31(3)(b), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.39/27 (1969), 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 (entered into force 27 Jan. 1980), reprinted in 8 I.LM. 679 (1969). See also Ian Brownlie, The Decisions of Political Organs of the United Nations and the Rule of Law, in ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF WANG TIEYA 91, 100-02 (Ronald St. John Macdonald ed., 1994); Michael Reisman, The Constitutional Crisis in the United Nations, 87 AM. J. INT'L L. 83, 96 (1993).
    • (1994) Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya , pp. 91
    • Brownlie, I.1
  • 84
    • 85050789778 scopus 로고
    • The Constitutional Crisis in the United Nations
    • See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 23 May 1969, art. 31(3)(b), U.N. Doc. A/CONF.39/27 (1969), 1155 U.N.T.S. 331 (entered into force 27 Jan. 1980), reprinted in 8 I.LM. 679 (1969). See also Ian Brownlie, The Decisions of Political Organs of the United Nations and the Rule of Law, in ESSAYS IN HONOUR OF WANG TIEYA 91, 100-02 (Ronald St. John Macdonald ed., 1994); Michael Reisman, The Constitutional Crisis in the United Nations, 87 AM. J. INT'L L. 83, 96 (1993).
    • (1993) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.87 , pp. 83
    • Reisman, M.1
  • 85
    • 0345984413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Regulating the Use of Force in the 21st Century: The Continuing Importance of State Autonomy
    • The extent of support for broad Chapter VII authority is seen when one examines another example: the authorization of force by the Security Council regardless of whether it is acting to restore international peace and security per Chapter VII, Article 39 of the Charter. Many say the Security Council may now authorize force for any humane end, whether it implicates international peace or not. To date, however, this author finds only one example where Article 39 was ignored and force was authorized in a predominately non-international conflict, without the consent of the parties to the conflict. That was the case of Haiti, and even then there was protest. It is difficult to argue, therefore, that the Charter has been modified on this point. See Mary Ellen O'Connell, Regulating the Use of Force in the 21st Century: The Continuing Importance of State Autonomy, 36 COLUM. J. TRANSNAT'L. L. 473 (1997). This problem is not implicated in the Kosovo Conflict given the significant threats to international peace, especially by the cross-border action of the Kosovo Liberation Army. See Section II, infra.
    • (1997) Colum. J. Transnat'l. L. , vol.36 , pp. 473
    • O'Connell, M.E.1
  • 86
    • 0038592054 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 16 Oct.
    • See NATO, BI-MNC DIRECTIVE FOR NATO DOCTRINE FOR PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS 15(16 Oct. 1998) (on file with author). It is unclear why NATO includes an OSCE authorization possibility in addition to the United Nations. As discussed previously, the OSCE is a Chapter VIII organization and will in all cases seek Security Council authorization before using or authorizing enforcement action. See CSCE Declarations, supra note 35; Charter for European Security, supra note 35. The author suspects it may have something to do with US disenchantment with the United Nations and a wish to remove NATO from under the United Nations sole authority. See infra text accompanying notes 155-57.
    • (1998) Bi-mnc Directive for NATO Doctrine for Peace Support Operations , pp. 15
  • 87
    • 85037453805 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • An Agenda for Peace, supra note 49
    • An Agenda for Peace, supra note 49.
  • 88
    • 85037448238 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id.
    • See id.
  • 91
    • 10044281378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Shaky Ground/No Diplomatic Charter Justifies NATO Air Assaults, Scholars Say
    • 28 Mar.
    • See John Diamond, On Shaky Ground/No Diplomatic Charter Justifies NATO Air Assaults, Scholars Say, Hous. CHRON., 28 Mar. 1999, at 1.
    • (1999) Hous. Chron. , pp. 1
    • Diamond, J.1
  • 92
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    • NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects
    • See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477
    • For an argument that there is no right of unauthorized humanitarian intervention, see Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, 10 EUR. J. INT'L L. 2 (1999). See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 123-24; Louis Henkin, Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy, in RIGHT v. MIGHT: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE or FORCE 37 (Louis Henkin et al. eds., 1991); Tom Farer, An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention, in LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER 185 (Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., 1991); DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89; Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1624-27 (1984).
    • (1999) Eur. J. Int'l L. , vol.10 , pp. 2
    • Simma, B.1
  • 93
    • 84883864581 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 30
    • For an argument that there is no right of unauthorized humanitarian intervention, see Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, 10 EUR. J. INT'L L. 2 (1999). See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 123-24; Louis Henkin, Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy, in RIGHT v. MIGHT: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE or FORCE 37 (Louis Henkin et al. eds., 1991); Tom Farer, An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention, in LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER 185 (Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., 1991); DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89; Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1624-27 (1984).
    • A Commentary , pp. 123-124
  • 94
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    • Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy
    • Louis Henkin et al. eds.
    • For an argument that there is no right of unauthorized humanitarian intervention, see Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, 10 EUR. J. INT'L L. 2 (1999). See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 123-24; Louis Henkin, Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy, in RIGHT v. MIGHT: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE or FORCE 37 (Louis Henkin et al. eds., 1991); Tom Farer, An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention, in LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER 185 (Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., 1991); DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89; Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1624-27 (1984).
    • (1991) Right v. Might: International Law and the Use or Force , pp. 37
    • Henkin, L.1
  • 95
    • 85081899732 scopus 로고
    • An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention
    • Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89
    • For an argument that there is no right of unauthorized humanitarian intervention, see Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, 10 EUR. J. INT'L L. 2 (1999). See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 123-24; Louis Henkin, Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy, in RIGHT v. MIGHT: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE or FORCE 37 (Louis Henkin et al. eds., 1991); Tom Farer, An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention, in LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER 185 (Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., 1991); DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89; Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1624-27 (1984).
    • (1991) Law and Force in the New International Order , pp. 185
    • Farer, T.1
  • 96
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    • The Right of States to Use Armed Force
    • For an argument that there is no right of unauthorized humanitarian intervention, see Bruno Simma, NATO, the UN and the Use of Force: Legal Aspects, 10 EUR. J. INT'L L. 2 (1999). See also O'Connell, supra note 69, at 477; A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 123-24; Louis Henkin, Use of Force: Law and U.S. Policy, in RIGHT v. MIGHT: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE USE or FORCE 37 (Louis Henkin et al. eds., 1991); Tom Farer, An Inquiry into the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention, in LAW AND FORCE IN THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ORDER 185 (Lori F. Damrosch & D.J. Scheffer eds., 1991); DINSTEIN, supra note 5, at 89; Oscar Schachter, The Right of States to Use Armed Force, 82 MICH. L. REV. 1620, 1624-27 (1984).
    • (1984) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.82 , pp. 1620
    • Schachter, O.1
  • 97
    • 85037474105 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See The Nicaragua Case, supra note 6, at 124-25 & 268
    • See The Nicaragua Case, supra note 6, at 124-25 & 268.
  • 98
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    • Humanitarian Intervention: A Reply to Ian Brownlie and a Plea for Constructive Alternatives
    • John Norton Moore ed.
    • Richard B. Lillich, Humanitarian Intervention: A Reply to Ian Brownlie and a Plea for Constructive Alternatives, in LAW AND CIVIL WAR IN THE MODERN WORLD 229, 244-51 (John Norton Moore ed., 1974).
    • (1974) Law and Civil War in the Modern World , pp. 229
    • Lillich, R.B.1
  • 99
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    • Continuing Limits on UN Intervention in Civil War
    • See Mary Ellen O'Connell, Continuing Limits on UN Intervention in Civil War, 67 IND. L.J. 903, 904-09 (1992).
    • (1992) Ind. L.J. , vol.67 , pp. 903
    • O'Connell, M.E.1
  • 100
    • 85037487449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 906-07
    • Id. at 906-07.
  • 101
    • 85037490739 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 909
    • See id. at 909.
  • 102
    • 85037490036 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 257-59
    • See A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at 257-59.
  • 103
    • 85037481966 scopus 로고
    • Uniting for Peace, adopted 3 Nov. 1950, G.A. Res. 377 (V), U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., 302d plen. mtg., ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. A/RES/377 (1950), Dusan J. Djonovich ed., Series I
    • Uniting for Peace, adopted 3 Nov. 1950, G.A. Res. 377 (V), U.N. GAOR, 5th Sess., 302d plen. mtg., ¶ 1, U.N. Doc. A/RES/377 (1950), reprinted in 3 UNITED NATIONS RESOLUTIONS 84 (Dusan J. Djonovich ed., Series I 1973).
    • (1973) United Nations Resolutions , vol.3 , pp. 84
  • 104
    • 85037474822 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See DINISTEIN, supra note 5, at 271
    • See DINISTEIN, supra note 5, at 271.
  • 105
    • 10044230221 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Global Attitudes on the Role of the United Nations in the Maintenance and Restoration of Peace
    • Recommending other types of action, such as economic sanctions, has occurred. See Louis B. Sohn, Global Attitudes on the Role of the United Nations in the Maintenance and Restoration of Peace, 26 GA. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 77 (1996).
    • (1996) Ga. J. Int'l & Comp. L. , vol.26 , pp. 77
    • Sohn, L.B.1
  • 106
    • 85037468647 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, U.N. Doc. A/51/10 [hereinafter Draft Articles on State Responsibility]
    • See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work Of Its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, at 125, 135-38, U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996) [hereinafter Draft Articles on State Responsibility]; International Law Commission, Draft Articles on State Responsibility, 37 I.L.M. 440, 450-52 (1998).
    • (1996) Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Forty-Eighth Session , pp. 125
  • 107
    • 0003162753 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Law Commission, Draft Articles on State Responsibility
    • See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work Of Its Forty-Eighth Session, U.N. GAOR, 51st Sess., Supp. No. 10, at 125, 135-38, U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996) [hereinafter Draft Articles on State Responsibility]; International Law Commission, Draft Articles on State Responsibility, 37 I.L.M. 440, 450-52 (1998).
    • (1998) I.L.M. , vol.37 , pp. 440
  • 108
    • 85037449415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See infra text accompanying notes 122-25
    • See infra text accompanying notes 122-25.
  • 110
    • 85037478373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id art. 33(2)
    • Id art. 33(2).
  • 111
    • 85037447285 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. art. 32
    • Id. art. 32.
  • 112
    • 85037454806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 136 (emphasis added)
    • Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 136 (emphasis added).
  • 113
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    • Comprehensive Peace in the Balkans: The Kosovo Question
    • See David L. Phillips, Comprehensive Peace in the Balkans: The Kosovo Question, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 821, 822, 826 (1996). See also JULIE A. MERTUS, Kosovo: How MYTHS AND TRUTHS STARTED A WAR (1999); The Balkans, ECONOMIST, 24 Jan. 1998, at 3, 15.
    • (1996) Hum. Rts. Q. , vol.18 , pp. 821
    • Phillips, D.L.1
  • 114
    • 5844421939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See David L. Phillips, Comprehensive Peace in the Balkans: The Kosovo Question, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 821, 822, 826 (1996). See also JULIE A. MERTUS, Kosovo: How MYTHS AND TRUTHS STARTED A WAR (1999); The Balkans, ECONOMIST, 24 Jan. 1998, at 3, 15.
    • (1999) Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War
    • Mertus, J.A.1
  • 115
    • 5844421939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Balkans
    • 24 Jan.
    • See David L. Phillips, Comprehensive Peace in the Balkans: The Kosovo Question, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 821, 822, 826 (1996). See also JULIE A. MERTUS, Kosovo: How MYTHS AND TRUTHS STARTED A WAR (1999); The Balkans, ECONOMIST, 24 Jan. 1998, at 3, 15.
    • (1998) Economist , pp. 3
  • 116
    • 85037490208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Phillips, supra note 91, at 822
    • See Phillips, supra note 91, at 822.
  • 117
    • 85037447642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kosovo and Its Borders
    • 13 Apr.
    • Macedonia alone was able to negotiate a completely peaceful separation. See Ian Hunt, Kosovo and Its Borders, GUARDIAN, 13 Apr. 1999, at 10; Justin Brown, Macedonia, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, 29 May 1998, at 7.
    • (1999) Guardian , pp. 10
    • Hunt, I.1
  • 118
    • 10044252952 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Macedonia
    • 29 May
    • Macedonia alone was able to negotiate a completely peaceful separation. See Ian Hunt, Kosovo and Its Borders, GUARDIAN, 13 Apr. 1999, at 10; Justin Brown, Macedonia, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, 29 May 1998, at 7.
    • (1998) Christian Sci. Monitor , pp. 7
    • Brown, J.1
  • 119
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    • See Phillips, supra note 91, at 824
    • See Phillips, supra note 91, at 824.
  • 120
    • 85037453847 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kosovo is considered holy because it is where the Serbs were defeated by the Turks in 1389. See id. at 822 (citing an Interview with Slobodan Milosevic, President of the Republic of Serbia, in Belgrade, Serbia (7 Dec. 1995))
    • Kosovo is considered holy because it is where the Serbs were defeated by the Turks in 1389. See id. at 822 (citing an Interview with Slobodan Milosevic, President of the Republic of Serbia, in Belgrade, Serbia (7 Dec. 1995)).
  • 121
    • 84866835786 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • "Rich" Kosovo Costly for Serbs
    • 28 July
    • See Justin Brown, "Rich" Kosovo Costly for Serbs, CHRISTIAN Sci. MONITOR, 28 July 1998, at 8.
    • (1998) Christian Sci. Monitor , pp. 8
    • Brown, J.1
  • 122
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    • Albania: A Case Study in the Practical Implementation of Partnership for Peace
    • Summer
    • The author confirmed this first hand as part of NATO's Partnership for Peace outreach program for Albania. See George Katsirdaki, Albania: A Case Study in the Practical Implementation of Partnership for Peace, 46 NATO REV., Summer 1998, at 22. During a visit in January 1998, it was revealed that the Albanian army was practically immobile - it simply had no working vehicles. LTC Robert Applegate, the US defense attaché, remarked that he had personally counted over 100 vehicles donated by the United States which had been wrecked and were no longer usable by the Albanian military. Robert Applegate, Remarks to the NATO/EAPC 12th Expert Team to Albania (including the author), 26 Jan. 1998.
    • (1998) NATO Rev. , vol.46 , pp. 22
    • Katsirdaki, G.1
  • 123
    • 85037459159 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (including the author), 26 Jan.
    • The author confirmed this first hand as part of NATO's Partnership for Peace outreach program for Albania. See George Katsirdaki, Albania: A Case Study in the Practical Implementation of Partnership for Peace, 46 NATO REV., Summer 1998, at 22. During a visit in January 1998, it was revealed that the Albanian army was practically immobile - it simply had no working vehicles. LTC Robert Applegate, the US defense attaché, remarked that he had personally counted over 100 vehicles donated by the United States which had been wrecked and were no longer usable by the Albanian military. Robert Applegate, Remarks to the NATO/EAPC 12th Expert Team to Albania (including the author), 26 Jan. 1998.
    • (1998) Remarks to the NATO/EAPC 12th Expert Team to Albania
    • Applegate, R.1
  • 124
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    • Endgame in Kosovo
    • 6 May
    • Mark Danner, Endgame in Kosovo, 46 N.Y. REV. BOOKS, 6 May 1999, at 8, 10 ("International leaders respect [Rugova's] reasonableness and steady hand. Furthermore, Rugova's moderation and message of peace are appreciated in western capitals where he is received at high levels." (citing Letter from Senator Bob Dole to Secretary of State Warren Christopher (20 Dec. 1995)).
    • (1999) N.Y. Rev. Books , vol.46 , pp. 8
    • Danner, M.1
  • 125
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    • See id.
  • 126
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    • See id. at 11
    • See id. at 11.
  • 128
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    • KOSOVO: Next Balkan Boilover?
    • 6 Mar.
    • See Jonathan S. Landay, KOSOVO: Next Balkan Boilover?, CHRISTIAN SCI. MONITOR, 6 Mar. 1998, at 1.
    • (1998) Christian Sci. Monitor , pp. 1
    • Landay, J.S.1
  • 129
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    • See MERTUS, supra note 91, at 308
    • See MERTUS, supra note 91, at 308.
  • 130
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    • See Id.
    • See Id.
  • 131
    • 85037476497 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Path to Crisis: How the United States and Its Allies Went to War
    • 19 April
    • Barton Gellman, The Path to Crisis: How the United States and Its Allies Went to War, INT'L HERALD TRIB., 19 April 1999 ,at 2.
    • (1999) Int'l Herald Trib. , pp. 2
    • Gellman, B.1
  • 132
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    • Albright und Kinkel für Eingreifen im Kosovo
    • 9 Mar.
    • See Albright und Kinkel für Eingreifen im Kosovo, SÜDDEUTSCHE ZEITUNG, 9 Mar. 1998, at 8. The "Contact Group" consists of the United States, Russia, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, and France. See Gellman, supra note 105, at 2.
    • (1998) Süddeutsche Zeitung , pp. 8
  • 133
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    • See Landay, supra note 102
    • See Landay, supra note 102.
  • 134
    • 85037474543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S.C. Res. 1160, U.N. SCOR, 3868th mtg, ¶ ¶ 1-2, 8, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1160 (1998)
    • S.C. Res. 1160, U.N. SCOR, 3868th mtg, ¶ ¶ 1-2, 8, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1160 (1998).
  • 135
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    • Danner, supra note 98, at 11
    • Danner, supra note 98, at 11.
  • 136
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    • NATO Approves Kosovo Action Plan but U.S. Officials Complain That Russia is Undermining Them
    • 14 Aug. 1998 WL 4793500
    • See id.; Joseph Fitchett, NATO Approves Kosovo Action Plan But U.S. Officials Complain That Russia is Undermining Them, INT'L HERALD TRIB., 14 Aug. 1998, 1998 WL 4793500.
    • (1998) Int'l Herald Trib.
    • Fitchett, J.1
  • 137
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    • Los Angeles, 29 June 1998, cited in Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 153 n.119
    • See Secretary of Defense William S. Cohen, Remarks at the Meeting of the World Affairs Council, Los Angeles, 29 June 1998, cited in Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 153 n.119.
    • Remarks at the Meeting of the World Affairs Council
    • Cohen, W.S.1
  • 138
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    • Simma, supra note 75, at 15
    • Simma, supra note 75, at 15.
  • 139
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    • 9 July
    • See JANE'S INFORMATION GROUP LTD., FOREIGN REPORT, 9 July 1998. See also Kohl will UN-Mandat für Einsatz im Kosovo, SÜDDEUTSCHE ZEITUNG, 19 June 1998, at 1.
    • (1998) Jane's Information Group Ltd., Foreign Report
  • 140
    • 84866831870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kohl will UN-Mandat für Einsatz im Kosovo
    • 19 June
    • See JANE'S INFORMATION GROUP LTD., FOREIGN REPORT, 9 July 1998. See also Kohl will UN-Mandat für Einsatz im Kosovo, SÜDDEUTSCHE ZEITUNG, 19 June 1998, at 1.
    • (1998) Süddeutsche Zeitung , pp. 1
  • 141
    • 85037480561 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Holbrooke Meets with NATO Officials in Effort to End Stalemate with Milosevic
    • 13 Oct.
    • See John Reed, Holbrooke Meets with NATO Officials in Effort to End Stalemate with Milosevic, WALL ST. J. EUR., 13 Oct. 1998, at 2.
    • (1998) Wall St. J. Eur. , pp. 2
    • Reed, J.1
  • 142
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    • MERTUS, supra note 91, at 309
    • MERTUS, supra note 91, at 309.
  • 143
    • 85037459808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S.C. Res. 1199, U.N. SCOR, 3930th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1199 (1998)
    • S.C. Res. 1199, U.N. SCOR, 3930th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1199 (1998).
  • 144
    • 85037480387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. 1 16
    • Id. 1 16.
  • 145
    • 85037464038 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 129
    • See Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67, at 129.
  • 147
    • 85037489484 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cohen, supra note 1
    • Cohen, supra note 1.
  • 148
    • 85037452953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NATO Humanitarian Intervention without a Mandate? Discussing Options for Developing the UN Charter
    • Mar. English Summary
    • Winrich Kühne, NATO Humanitarian Intervention without a Mandate? Discussing Options for Developing the UN Charter, STIFTUNG WISSENSCHAFT UND POLITIK (SWP) FORSCHUNGSINSTITUT FÜR INTERNATIONALE POLITIK UND SICHERHEIT, Mar. 1999 (English Summary). The political pressures on Fischer were clear - he wanted to show that neither he nor his party would be obstructionist and, therefore, unfit to govern, as was feared by some. See Germany, Fear of Greenery ECONOMIST, 10 Oct. 1998, at 55.
    • (1999) Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP) Forschungsinstitut für Internationale Politik und Sicherheit
    • Kühne, W.1
  • 149
    • 85037450693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 10 Oct.
    • Winrich Kühne, NATO Humanitarian Intervention without a Mandate? Discussing Options for Developing the UN Charter, STIFTUNG WISSENSCHAFT UND POLITIK (SWP) FORSCHUNGSINSTITUT FÜR INTERNATIONALE POLITIK UND SICHERHEIT, Mar. 1999 (English Summary). The political pressures on Fischer were clear - he wanted to show that neither he nor his party would be obstructionist and, therefore, unfit to govern, as was feared by some. See Germany, Fear of Greenery ECONOMIST, 10 Oct. 1998, at 55.
    • (1998) Germany, Fear of Greenery Economist , pp. 55
  • 150
    • 85037466292 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • An indication of this is that NATO placed an unusually long "hold" on the ACTORD-96 hours. See Cohen, supra note 1.
  • 151
    • 84949788459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Holbrooke's Next Mission
    • 26 Oct.
    • See Douglas Waller, Holbrooke's Next Mission, TIME, 26 Oct. 1998, at 59 (photo caption).
    • (1998) Time , pp. 59
    • Waller, D.1
  • 152
    • 85037487015 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 15 Oct. visited 22 Nov. 1999
    • NATO Secretary General Dr. Javier Solana, Speech at Belgrade, 15 Oct. 1998, available on 〈http://www.nato.int/docu/speecn/1998/s981015a.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999).
    • (1998) Speech at Belgrade
    • Solana, J.1
  • 153
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    • visited 22 Nov.
    • See United States Information Service, Transcript: Ambassador Pickering on Kosovo, NATO Threat of Force, available on 〈http://pdq2.usia.gov/scripts/cqcgi.exe/@pdqtest1 .env?CQ_SESSION_KEY=SIWYMOAIPKGE&CQ_QUERY_HANDLE=124111 &CQ_CUR_ DOCUMENT=1&CQ_PDQ_DOCUMENT_VIEW=1&CQSUBMIT=View&CQRETURN=& CQPAGE=1〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999).
    • (1999) Transcript: Ambassador Pickering on Kosovo, NATO Threat of Force
  • 154
    • 85037463814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Agreement on the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission, 16 Oct. 1998, FRY-OSCE, 38 I.L.M. 24, 26 (1999)
    • See Agreement on the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission, 16 Oct. 1998, FRY-OSCE, 38 I.L.M. 24, 26 (1999).
  • 155
    • 85037455910 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 1400 Rights Monitors Ordered out of Kosovo, Group's Exit Raises Likelihood of NATO Air Strikes
    • 20 Mar.
    • See Susan Milligan, 1400 Rights Monitors Ordered Out of Kosovo, Group's Exit Raises Likelihood of NATO Air Strikes, Bos. GLOBE, 20 Mar. 1999, at A2.
    • (1999) Bos. Globe
    • Milligan, S.1
  • 156
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    • See Gellman, supra note 105
    • See Gellman, supra note 105.
  • 158
    • 7444258068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Prepared Statement for the North Atlantic Council, Brussels, Belgium, in 9 U.S. DEPT. ST. DISPATCH, Dec.
    • Secretary Albright, NATO: Preparing for the Washington Summit, Prepared Statement for the North Atlantic Council, Brussels, Belgium, in 9 U.S. DEPT. ST. DISPATCH, Dec. 1998, at 1, 3. Presumably she was referring to Security Council authorization by using the term "mandate."
    • (1998) NATO: Preparing for the Washington Summit , pp. 1
  • 159
    • 85037488064 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe Looks Quizzically at U.S. Proposal for NATO Strategy
    • 9 Dec.
    • Craig R. Whitney, Europe Looks Quizzically at U.S. Proposal for NATO Strategy, N.Y. TIMES, 9 Dec. 1998, at A7.
    • (1998) N.Y. Times
    • Whitney, C.R.1
  • 160
    • 84937267632 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Enforcement of Security Council Resolution 687: The Threat of Force Against Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction
    • Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67
    • For a discussion of the legality of bombing in Iraq, see Ruth Wedgwood, The Enforcement of Security Council Resolution 687: The Threat of Force Against Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction, 92 AM. J. INT'L L. 724 (1998); Lobel & Ratner, supra note 67.
    • (1998) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.92 , pp. 724
    • Wedgwood, R.1
  • 161
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    • Villagers Slaughtered in Kosovo Atrocity
    • 17 Jan.
    • Guy Dinmore, Villagers Slaughtered in Kosovo Atrocity, WASH. POST, 17 Jan. 1999, at A1. For a detailed account of the numbers killed in the conflict during 1998, see HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, WORLD REPORT 1999, at 309-15 (1999) (mentioning several hundred fatalities).
    • (1999) Wash. Post
    • Dinmore, G.1
  • 162
    • 0039119411 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • mentioning several hundred fatalities
    • Guy Dinmore, Villagers Slaughtered in Kosovo Atrocity, WASH. POST, 17 Jan. 1999, at A1. For a detailed account of the numbers killed in the conflict during 1998, see HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, WORLD REPORT 1999, at 309-15 (1999) (mentioning several hundred fatalities).
    • (1999) Human Rights Watch, World Report 1999 , pp. 309-315
  • 163
    • 85033479969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Trickiest Divides Are among Big Powers at Kosovo Talks
    • 11 Feb.
    • Jane Perlez, Trickiest Divides Are Among Big Powers at Kosovo Talks, N.Y. TIMES, 11 Feb. 1999, at A8.
    • (1999) N.Y. Times
    • Perlez, J.1
  • 164
    • 85037469749 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 22 Nov.
    • Rambouillet Accords: Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Governing in Kosovo, U.N. SCOR, Annex, U.N. Doc. S/1999/648 (1999), available on 〈http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/ ramb.htm〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999).
    • (1999)
  • 165
    • 85037447835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A full treatment of the conflict in Kosovo would analyze the course of these talks as a study in failed diplomacy. This paper aims only at assessing the legality of use of force by regional security organizations and cannot go into this level of detail.
  • 166
    • 85037464524 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • War in the Balkans, Russia Brings Ray of Hope to Darkened Skies
    • 30 Mar.
    • John Donnelly, War in the Balkans, Russia Brings Ray of Hope to Darkened Skies, Hous. CHRON., 30 Mar. 1999, at A12.
    • (1999) Hous. Chron.
    • Donnelly, J.1
  • 167
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    • Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
    • See Sean D. Murphy, Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law, 93 AM. J. INT'L L., 470, 474 n.19 (1999).
    • (1999) Am. J. Int'l L. , vol.93 , Issue.19 , pp. 470
    • Murphy, S.D.1
  • 169
    • 85037485976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US Department of State Briefing
    • 24 Mar.
    • See US Department of State Briefing, M2 PRESSWIRE, 24 Mar. 1999, available in 1999 WL 14066148; Contemporary Practice of the United States, supra note 2, at 631.
    • (1999) M2 Presswire
  • 170
    • 85037464748 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • supra note 2
    • See US Department of State Briefing, M2 PRESSWIRE, 24 Mar. 1999, available in 1999 WL 14066148; Contemporary Practice of the United States, supra note 2, at 631.
    • Contemporary Practice of the United States , pp. 631
  • 171
    • 0347528526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Refugees Want Kosovo Free of Serbs; Prospect of Revenge Complicates Return
    • 6 June 1999
    • See Peter Finn, Refugees Want Kosovo Free of Serbs; Prospect of Revenge Complicates Return, WASH. POST, 6 June 1999, at A1.
    • Wash. Post
    • Finn, P.1
  • 172
    • 85037459343 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 22 Nov.
    • Legality of Use of Force (Yugo. v. U.S.), 1999 I.C.J. Pleadings (Verbatim Record: Request for the indication of provisional measures), ¶ 1.7 (11 May 1999), available on 〈http:// www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iyall/iyall_cr/iyall_iyus_icr9924_19990511. html〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999).
    • (1999)
  • 173
    • 85037480050 scopus 로고
    • The Panamanian Revolution: Diplomacy, War and SelfDetermination in Panama (I&II) Self-Determination and Intervention in Panama (I)
    • This approach is reminiscent of the State Department justification of the US intervention in Panama by "looking at all the circumstances" when none was sufficient on its own to justify the intervention. The Panamanian Revolution: Diplomacy, War and SelfDetermination in Panama (I&II) Self-Determination and Intervention in Panama (I), 84 AM. SOC'Y INT'L L. PROC. 182 (1990).
    • (1990) Am. Soc'y Int'l L. Proc. , vol.84 , pp. 182
  • 174
    • 85037464574 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 22 Nov.
    • Mais il faut aller plus loin et développer l'idée de l'intervention humanitaire armée. L'OTAN, le Royaume de Belgique en particulier, était tenu d'une véritable obligation d'intervenir pour prévenir une catastrophe humanitaire qui était en course et qui avait été constatée par les résolutions du Conseil de sécurité pour sauvegarder quoi, mais pour sauvegarder des valeurs essentielles qui sont elles aussi érigées au rang de jus cogens. [But we need to go further and develop the idea of armed humanitarian intervention. NATO, and the Kingdom of Belgium in particular, felt obliged to intervene to forestall an ongoing humanitarian catastrophe, acknowledged in Security Council resolutions. To safeguard what? To safeguard, Mr. President, essential values which also rank as jus cogens.) Legality of Use of Force (Yugo. v. Belg.), 1999 I.C.J. Pleadings (Verbatim Record: Request for the indication of provisional measures), at 10 (10 May 1999), available on 〈http://www.icj-cij.org/cijwww/cdocket/cyall/cyall_cr/ cyall_cybe_ccr9915_19990510 .html〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999).
    • (1999)
  • 175
    • 85037473045 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • visited 22 Nov.
    • A number of states made brief references to the "exceptional" situation and the need for exceptional measures in Yugoslavia's case against ten NATO members. Germany referred to the NATO operation being a "last resort." See Legality of Use of Force (Yugo. v. F.R.G.), 1999 I.C.J. Pleadings (Verbatim Record: Request for the indication of provisional measures), ¶ 1.3.1 (11 May 1999), available on 〈http://www.icj-cij.org/icj/ idocket/iyall/iyall_cr/iyal_iyge_icr9918_19990511.html〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999). Counsel for Yugoslavia anticipated that NATO members would claim the defense of necessity. They argued the conditions for its application did not exist. "Moreover a state of necessity may not be invoked by a State as a ground for precluding wrongfulness, if, amongst other things, the international obligation with which the act of the State is not in conformity arises out of a peremptory norm of international law or if the State in question has contributed to the occurrence of the state of necessity."
    • (1999)
  • 176
    • 85037465954 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (visited 22 Nov. 1999) (citation omitted)
    • Legality of Use of Force (Yugo. v. U.S. et al.), 1999 I.C.J. Pleadings (Verbatim Record: Request for the indication of provisional measures), at 31 (10 May 1999), available on 〈http:// www.icj-cij.org/icj/idocket/iyall/iyall_cr/iyall_icr9914_19990510.html〉 (visited 22 Nov. 1999) (citation omitted).
  • 177
    • 85037488344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Belgium argued in the case before the ICJ brought by Yugoslavia, "le Royaume de Belgique est d'avis que l'intervention armée trouve un fondement sans conteste dans les résolutions du Conseil de sécurité. . . . Ces résolutions du Conseil de sécurité sont claires, elles sont basées sur le chapitre VII de la Charte, constate une menace contre la paix et la sécurité internationales. [[T]he Kingdom of Belgium takes the view that the Security Council's resolutions . . . provide an unchallengeable basis for the armed intervention. They are clear, and they are based on Chapter VII of the Charter, under which the Security Council may determine the existence of any threat to international peace and security.]" Legality of Use of Force (Yugo. v. Belg.), supra note 142, at 10.
  • 178
    • 85037457965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Europe's Governments Largely Favor Action
    • 25 Mar.
    • See U.N. SCOR, 54th Sess., 3989th mtg., at 5, U.N. Doc. S/PV.3989 (1999). But, Austria refused to allow NATO to cross its territory or traverse its airspace because of the lack of Security Council authorization. See Charles Trueheart, Europe's Governments Largely Favor Action, WASH. POST, 25 Mar. 1999, at A31.
    • (1999) Wash. Post
    • Trueheart, C.1
  • 179
    • 85037477512 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at n.16
    • A COMMENTARY, supra note 30, at n.16.
  • 180
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    • Special Supplement: Opinions on the Legality of NATO's Attack Against the FRY
    • Many of these views are expressed in Special Supplement: Opinions on the Legality of NATO's Attack Against the FRY, 33 U.N.L. REP. 112 (1999).
    • (1999) U.N.L. Rep. , vol.33 , pp. 112
  • 181
    • 0004244075 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Examples of "instant" custom are rare. See MALCOLM SHAW, INTERNATIONAL LAW 62 (1997).
    • (1997) International Law , pp. 62
    • Shaw, M.1
  • 182
    • 85037462931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 68
    • See id. at 68.
  • 183
    • 0003446029 scopus 로고
    • On the compliance inducing power of rules based on the perceived legitimacy of rules, which depends on the clarity of and support for rules, see THOMAS FRANCK, THE POWER OF LEGITIMACY AMONG NATIONS (1990); ROGER FISHER, IMPROVING COMPLIANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW (1981).
    • (1990) The Power of Legitimacy Among Nations
    • Franck, T.1
  • 184
    • 0010101489 scopus 로고
    • On the compliance inducing power of rules based on the perceived legitimacy of rules, which depends on the clarity of and support for rules, see THOMAS FRANCK, THE POWER OF LEGITIMACY AMONG NATIONS (1990); ROGER FISHER, IMPROVING COMPLIANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW (1981).
    • (1981) Improving Compliance with International Law
    • Fisher, R.1
  • 185
    • 0003690687 scopus 로고
    • The nature of legal obligation is a major topic in international law. For a classic treatment on the role of community support versus sanction in the creation of a legal system, see LOUIS HENKIN, How NATIONS BEHAVE (1979).
    • (1979) How Nations Behave
    • Henkin, L.1
  • 186
    • 85037478735 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998)
    • See Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, U.N. Diplomatic Conf. of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an Int'l Crim. Ct., Annex II, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.183/9 (1998), reprinted in 37 I.L.M. 999 (1998).
  • 187
    • 0040942718 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Maximizing NATO, a Relevant Alliance Knows How to Reach
    • In addition to the positions of Albright, Cohen, and Talbot cited in the previous section, see Robert E. Hunter, Maximizing NATO, A Relevant Alliance Knows How to Reach, 78 FOR. AFF. 190, 200 (1999) ("The United States has hoped that NATO's first-ever agreement, last October, to use force without a formal UN request will set a precedent, but most Europeans disagree."). Hunter was the US Ambassador to NATO from 1993-1998. See also John Bolton, The Next President and NATO, WASH. TIMES, 21 Jul. 1999, at 17 ("It should be a first priority of a new president to make unmistakenly clear - to NATO and the rest of the world - that we reject Secretary General Kofi Annan's view that the UN is the 'sole legitimate source' in the world for the authorization of force.").
    • (1999) For. Aff. , vol.78 , pp. 190
    • Hunter, R.E.1
  • 188
    • 9744220378 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Next President and NATO
    • 21 Jul.
    • In addition to the positions of Albright, Cohen, and Talbot cited in the previous section, see Robert E. Hunter, Maximizing NATO, A Relevant Alliance Knows How to Reach, 78 FOR. AFF. 190, 200 (1999) ("The United States has hoped that NATO's first-ever agreement, last October, to use force without a formal UN request will set a precedent, but most Europeans disagree."). Hunter was the US Ambassador to NATO from 1993-1998. See also John Bolton, The Next President and NATO, WASH. TIMES, 21 Jul. 1999, at 17 ("It should be a first priority of a new president to make unmistakenly clear - to NATO and the rest of the world - that we reject Secretary General Kofi Annan's view that the UN is the 'sole legitimate source' in the world for the authorization of force.").
    • (1999) Wash. Times , pp. 17
    • Bolton, J.1
  • 189
    • 85037482304 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A UN Security Council resolution requires an affirmative vote of nine and no negative vote of a permanent member. If nine of the ten non-permanent members all vote against a resolution, it will not be adopted even with all permanent members voting in favor. See UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 27(2)
    • A UN Security Council resolution requires an affirmative vote of nine and no negative vote of a permanent member. If nine of the ten non-permanent members all vote against a resolution, it will not be adopted even with all permanent members voting in favor. See UN CHARTER, supra note 4, art. 27(2).
  • 190
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    • Kühne, supra note 121
    • Kühne, supra note 121.
  • 191
    • 85037462305 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Simma, supra note 75
    • See Simma, supra note 75.
  • 192
    • 85037472371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See id. at 20 citing in part Jeffrey Laurenti, NATO, the UN, and the Use of Force (background paper prepared for the United Nations Association of U.S.A.(1999))
    • See id. at 20 (citing in part Jeffrey Laurenti, NATO, the UN, and the Use of Force (background paper prepared for the United Nations Association of U.S.A.(1999)).
  • 193
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    • See S.C. Res. 1264, U.N. SCOR, 4045th mtg., U.N. Doc. S/RES/1264 (1999). In addition, the OSCE has renewed its commitment to UN Charter rules. See
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