IQ variations across time, race, and nationality: An artifact of differences in literacy skills

Psychological Reports

Volumn 106, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 643-664

  Marks, David F ^a  

^a NONE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; CAUCASIAN; COMPARATIVE STUDY; CULTURAL FACTOR; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EPIDEMIOLOGY; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE TEST; MALE; NEGRO; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOMETRY; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL JUSTICE; STATISTICS; UNITED STATES; WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; BIAS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE TESTS; MALE; PSYCHOMETRICS; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; SOCIAL JUSTICE; UNITED STATES; WECHSLER SCALES; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 77956221214     PISSN: 00332941     EISSN: 1558691X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2466/pr0.106.3.643-664     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. AGASSIZ, E. C. (1850) The diversity of origin of the human races. Christian Examiner, 49, 110-145.
2. ALFONSO, V. C., FLANAGAN, D. P., & RADWAN, S. (2005) The impact of the Catell-Horn-Carroll theory on test development and interpretation of cognitive and academic abilities. In D. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests, and issues. (2nd ed.) New York: Guilford. Pp. 185-202.
3. BENSON, N. (2008) Catell-Horn-Carroll cognitive abilities and reading achievement. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 26, 27-41.
4. BRIDGEMAN, B., & BUTTRAM, J. (1975) Race differences on nonverbal analogy test performance as a function of verbal strategy training. Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 586-590.
5. BRODY, N. (1992) Intelligence. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
6. CAMPBELL, J. R., HOMBO, C. M., & MAZZEO, J. (2000) Trends in academic progress: three decades of student performance, NCES 2000-469. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, National Center for Education Statistics, NAEP 1999.
7. CARROLL, J. B. (1993) Human cognitive abilities: a survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge Univer. Press.
8. COLOM, R., LLUIS-FONT, J. M., & ANDRÉS-PUEYO, A. (2005) The generational intelligence gains are caused by decreasing variance in the lower half of the distribution: supporting evidence for the nutrition hypothesis. Intelligence, 33, 83-91.
9. COULOMBE, S., & TREMBLAY, J. F. (2006) Literacy and growth. Topics in Macroeconomics, 6, 1-32.
10. DICKENS, W. T., & FLYNN, J. R. (2006) Black Americans reduce the racial IQ gap: evidence from standardization samples. Psychological Science, 17, 913-920.
11. DOLAN, C. V., COLOM, R., ABAD, F. J., WICHERTS, J. M., HESSEN, D. J., & VAN DE SLUIS, S. (2006) Multi-group covariance and mean structure modeling of the relationship between the WAIS-III common factors and sex and educational attainment in Spain. Intelligence, 34, 193-210.
12. EBERHARDT, J. L. (2005) Imaging race. American Psychologist, 60, 181-190.
13. FISCHER, C. S., HOUT, M., JANKOWSKI, M. J., LUCAS, S. R., SWIDLER, A., & VOSS, K. (1996) Inequality by design: cracking the bell curve myth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer. Press.
14. FLANAGAN, D. P., & ORTIZ, S. O. (2004) CHC theory: a taxonomy of cognitive abilities. In T. Steurt Watson & C. H. Skinner (Eds.), Encyclopedia of school psychology. New York: Kluwer Academic. Pp. 139-141.
15. FLYNN, J. R. (1984) The mean IQ of Americans: massive gains 1932 to 1978. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 29-51.
16. FLYNN, J. R. (1987) Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: what IQ tests really measure. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 171-191.
17. FLYNN, J. R. (2007) What is intelligence? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer. Press.
18. FLYNN, J. R. (2009) Requiem for nutrition as the cause of IQ gains: Raven's gains in Britain 1938 to 2008. Economics and Human Biology, 7, 18-27.
19. GARDNER, H. (1983) Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basic Books.
20. GARDNER, H. (1999) Intelligence reframed: multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books.
21. GELADE, G. A. (2008) The geography of IQ. Intelligence, 36, 495-501.
22. GOULD, S. J. (1981) The mismeasure of man. New York: Norton.
23. GREENFIELD, P. M. (1998) The cultural evolution of IQ. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 81-123.
24. HERRNSTEIN, R. J., & MURRAY, C. (1994) The bell curve: intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: Free Press.
25. HORN, J. L., & NOLL, J. (1997) Human cognitive capabilities: Gf-Gc theory. In D. Flanagan, J. L. Genshaf, & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests, and issues. New York: Guilford. Pp. 53-91.
26. HUANG, M-H., & HAUSER, R. M. (1998) Trends in Black-White test score differentials: II. The WORDSUM Vocabulary Test. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 303-332.
27. HUNT, E., & WITTMANN, W (2006) National intelligence and national prosperity. Intelligence, 36, 1-9.
28. JENSEN, A. R. (1998) The g factor. Westport, CT: Praeger.
29. KILBURN, M. R., HANSER, L. M., & KLERMAN, J. A. (1998) Estimating ATQT scores for National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) respondents. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Distribution Services.
30. KIRSCH, I. S., JUNGEBLUT, A., JENKINS, L., & KOLSTAD, A. (1993) Adult literacy in America: a first look at the results of the National Adult Literacy Survey. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
31. LYNN, R. (1998) In support of nutrition theory. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 207-215.
32. LYNN, R. (2006) Race differences in intelligence: an evolutionary analysis. Augusta, GA: Washington Summit.
33. LYNN, R. (2008) The global bell curve. Augusta, GA: Washington Summit.
34. LYNN, R., & MIKK, J. (2009) National IQs predict educational attainment in math, reading and science across 56 nations. Intelligence, 37, 305-310.
35. LYNN, R., & VANHANEN, T. (2002) IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, CT: Praeger.
36. LYNN, R., & VANHANEN, T. (2006) IQ and global inequality. Augusta, GA: Washington Summit.
37. MARTORELL, R. (1998) Nutrition and the worldwide rise in IQs. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 183-206.
38. MCGREW, K. S. (2005) The Catell-Horn-Carroll theory of cognitive abilities: past, present, and future. In D. P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment: theories, tests, and issues. (2nd ed.) New York: Guilford. Pp. 136-182.
39. MCGREW, K. S., & FLANAGAN, D. P. (1998) The Intelligence Test Desk Reference (ITDR): Gf-Gc cross-batery assessment. New York: The Guilford Press.
40. MINGRONI, M. A. (2004) The secular rise in IQ: giving heterosis a closer look. Intelligence, 32, 65-83.
41. MURRAY, C. (2006) Changes over time in the Black-White difference on mental tests: evidence from the children of the 1979 cohort of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Intelligence, 34, 527-540.
42. NATIONAL ASSESSMENT OF ADULT LITERACY. (2004) A first look at the literacy of America's adults in the 21st century. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, NCES 2006-470.
43. NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS. (1993) 120 years of American education: a statistical portrait. (T. Snyder, Ed.) Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, NCES 1993.
44. NEISSER, U. (1998) The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
45. NETTELBECK, T., & WILSON, C. (2004) The Flynn effect: smarter not faster. Intelligence, 32, 85-93.
46. NOTT, J. C., & GLIDDON, J. R. (1854) Types of mankind. Philadelphia: Lippincot, Grambo.
47. PERIE, M., & MORAN, R. (2005) NAEP 2004 trends in academic progress: three decades of student performance in reading and mathematics. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2005-464.
48. RINDERMANN, H. (2007a) Relevance of education and intelligence at the national level for the economic welfare of people. Intelligence, 36, 127-142.
49. RINDERMANN, H. (2007b) The g factor of international cognitive ability comparisons: the homogeneity of results in PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS, and IQ tests across nations. European Journal of Personality, 21, 667-706.
50. RUSHTON, J. P., & JENSEN, A. R. (2005) Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11, 235-294.
51. RUSHTON, J. P., & JENSEN, A. R. (2006) The totality of available evidence shows the race IQ gap still remains. Psychological Science, 17, 921-922.
52. RUSHTON, J. P., & RUSHTON, E. W. (2003) Brain size, IQ, and racial group differences: evidence from musculoskeletal traits. Intelligence, 31, 139-155.
53. SHAW, P., GREENSTEIN, D., LERCH, J., CLASEN, L., LENROOT, R., GOGTAY, N., EVANS, A., RAPOPORT, J., & GIEDD, J. (2006) Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature, 440, 676-679.
54. SIGMAN, M., & WHALEY, S. E. (1998) The role of nutrition in the development of intelligence. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 155-182.
55. SPEARMAN, C. S. (1904) General intelligence objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293.
56. SPEARMAN, C. S. (1927) The abilities of man. New York: Macmillan.
57. STERNBERG, R. J. (1980) Sketch of a componential subtheory of human intelligence. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 3, 573-584.
58. STERNBERG, R. J. (1999) Successful intelligence. New York: Plume.
59. STICHT, T. G., CAYLOR, J. S., KERN, R. P., & FOX, L. C. (1972) Project REALISTIC: determination of adult functional literacy skill levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 7, 424-465.
60. SUNDET, J. M., BARLAUG, D. G., & TORJUSSEN, T. M. (2004) The end of the Flynn effect? A study of secular trends in mean intelligence test scores of Norwegian conscripts during half a century. Intelligence, 32, 349-362.
61. TAYLOR, E. K. (1947) Tables for the determination of the significance of skewness and of the signifcance of the difference in the skewness of two independent distributions. Psychometrika, 12, 111-125.
62. TEASDALE, T. W., & OWEN, D. R. (2005) A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: the Flynn effect in reverse. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 837-843.
63. TIEGS, E. W., & CLARK, W. W. (1959) Survey of Reading Achievement: junior high level (grades 7-9). Monterey, CA: California Test Bureau.
64. UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM. (2006) United Nations Human Development Report: beyond scarcity: power, poverty and global water crisis. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
65. VERNON, P. A., WICKETT, J. A., BAZANA, G., & STELMACK, R. M. (2000) The neuropsychology and psychophysiology of human intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer. Press. Pp. 245-264.
66. WECHSLER, D. (1949) The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. New York: Psychological Corp.
67. WECHSLER, D. (1955) The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. New York: Psychological Corp.
68. WICHERTS, J. M., DOLAN, C. V., HESSEN, D. J., OOSTERVELD, P., VAN BAAL, G. C. M., BOOMSMA, D. I., & SPAN, M. M. (2004) Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect. Intelligence, 32, 509-537.
69. WILLIAMS, W M. (1998) Are we raising smarter children today? School-and homerelated influences on IQ. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve: long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pp. 125-154.
70. YERKES, R. M. (ED.) (1921) Psychological examining in the United States Army. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, 15, 1-8.