School Violence, Adjustment, and the Influence of Hope on Low-Income, African American Youth

American Journal of Orthopsychiatry

Volumn 80, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 213-226

  Cedeno, Linda A ^a   Elias, Maurice J ^a   Kelly, Shalonda ^a   Chu, Brian C ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Academic competence; African American; Children; Exposure to violence; Gender differences; Hope; Low income; Problem behaviors; Psychological impact; Resilience; School belonging; School violence; Self concept; Social skills; Victimization

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; ADJUSTMENT; ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; CHILD; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HOPE; HUMAN; LOWEST INCOME GROUP; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; QUESTIONNAIRE; SCHOOL CHILD; SCHOOL VIOLENCE; SELF CONCEPT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SOCIAL ADAPTATION; VICTIM; VIOLENCE; WITNESS; ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR; COPING BEHAVIOR; CRIME VICTIM; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; POVERTY; PSYCHOLOGY; SCHOOL; SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; AFRICAN AMERICANS; CHILD; CRIME VICTIMS; CULTURE; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; HUMANS; MALE; POVERTY; RESILIENCE, PSYCHOLOGICAL; SCHOOLS; SELF CONCEPT; SEX CHARACTERISTICS; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; VIOLENCE;

EID: 77953588429     PISSN: 00029432     EISSN: 19390025     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01025.x     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Aiken L S, West S G. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions 1991, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage
2. Attar B K, Guerra N G, Tolan G H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustment in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 1994, 23:391-400.
3. Barkin S, Kreiter S, Durant R H. Exposure to violence and intentions to engage in moralistic violence during early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence 2001, 24:777-789.
4. Barnum D D, Snyder C R, Rapoff M A, Mani M M, Thompson R. Hope and social support in psychological adjustment of children who have survived burn injuries and their matched controls. Children's Health Care 1998, 27:15-30.
5. Battistich V, Hom A. The relationship between students' sense of their school as a community and their involvement in problem behaviors. American Journal of Public Health 1997, 12:1997-2001.
6. Battistich V, Schaps E, Wilson N. Effects of an elementary school intervention on students'" connectedness" to school and social adjustment during middle school. Journal of Primary Prevention 2004, 24:243-262.
7. Bell C B, Jenkins E J. Community violence and children on Chicago's southside. Psychiatry 1993, 56:46-54.
8. Bolland J M. Hopelessness and risk behavior among adolescents living in high-poverty inner-city neighborhoods. Journal of Adolescence 2003, 26:145-158.
9. Bolland J, Lian B, Formichella C. The origins of hopelessness among inner-city African-American adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology 2005, 36:293-305.
10. Buckner J C, Beardslee W R, Bassuk E L. Exposure to violence and low-income children's mental health: Direct, moderated, and mediated relations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 2004, 74:413-423.
11. Buka S L, Stichick T L, Birdthistle I, Earls F J. Youth exposure to violence: Prevalence, risks, and consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 2001, 71:298-310.
12. Catalano R F, Berglund M L, Ryan J M, Lonczak H S, Hawkins J D. Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 2004, 591:98-124.
13. Chang E C. Hope, problem-solving ability, and coping in a college student population: Some implications for theory and practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology 1998, 54:953-962.
14. Comer J P. Leave no child behind: Preparing today's youth for tomorrow's world 2004, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press
15. Cooley-Quille M, Turner S M, Beidel D C. The emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence: A preliminary study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1995, 34:1362-1368.
16. Crick N R, Dodge K A. Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development 1994, 67:993-1002.
17. Curry L A, Maniar S D, Sondag K A, Sandstedt S. An optimal performance academic course for university students and student-athletes 1999, Unpublished manuscript, University of Montana, Missoula
18. Dahlberg L L, Toal S B, Behrens C B. Measuring violence-related attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors among youths: A compendium of assessment tools 1998, Atlanta, GA, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
19. Dawson J F, Richter A W. Probing three-way interactions in moderated multiple regression: Development and application of a slope difference test. Journal of Applied Psychology 2006, 91:917-926.
20. Dilworth J E, Morkrue K, Elias M J. The efficacy of a video-based teamwork-building series with urban elementary school students: A pilot investigation. Journal of School Psychology 2002, 40:329-346.
21. DuRant R H, Cadenhead C, Pendergrast R A, Slavens G, Linder C W. Factors associated with the use of violence among urban black adolescents. American Journal of Public Health 1994, 84:612-617.
22. Eisenbraun K D. Violence in schools: Prevalence, prediction, and prevention. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2007, 12:459-469.
23. Elias M J, Beier J J, Gara M A. Children's responses to interpersonal obstacles as a predictor of social competence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 1989, 18:451-465.
24. Elias M J, Srebnik D S. Let's prevent dropout-and other problem behaviors-by fostering engagement in school. People and Education 1993, 1:184-195.
25. Farmer T W, Farmer E M Z, Estell D B, Hutchins B C. The developmental dynamics of aggression and the prevention of school violence. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 2007, 15(4):197-208.
26. Farrell A D, Bruce S E. The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 1997, 26:2-14.
27. Farrell A D, Sullivan T N. Impact of witnessing violence on growth curves for problem behaviors among early adolescents in urban and rural settings. Journal of Community Psychology 2004, 32:505-525.
28. Fine M, Freudenberg N, Payne Y, Perkins T, Smith K, Wanzer K. " Anything can happen with police around": Urban youth evaluate strategies of surveillance in public places. Journal of Social Issues 2003, 59:141-158.
29. Finkelhor D, Ormrod R, Turner H, Hamby S L. The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive, national survey. Child Maltreatment 2005, 10:5-25.
30. Fitzpatrick K M. Exposure to violence and presence of depression among low-income, African-American youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1993, 61:528-531.
31. Fitzpatrick K M, Boldizar J P. The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1993, 32:424-430.
32. Fitzpatrick K M, Piko B F, Wright D R, LaGory M. Depressive symptomatology, exposure to violence, and the role of social capital among African American adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 2005, 75:262-274.
33. Flannery D J, Wester K L, Singer M I. Impact of exposure to violence in school on child and adolescent mental health and behavior. Journal of Community Psychology 2004, 32:559-573.
34. Gilman R, Dooley J, Florell D. Relative levels of hope and their relationship with academic and psychological indicators among adolescents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2006, 25:166-178.
35. Glew G M, Fan M Y, Katon W, Rivara F P, Kernic M A. Bullying, psychosocial adjustment, and academic performance in elementary school. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 2005, 159:1026-1032.
36. Gorman-Smith D, Henry D B, Tolan P H. Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: The protective effects of family functioning. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 2004, 33:439-449.
37. Gorman-Smith D, Tolan P H. The role of exposure to violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology 1998, 10:101-116.
38. Gresham F M, Elliott S N. Social Skills Rating System manual 1990, Circle Pines, American Guidance Service
39. Hammack P L, Richards M H, Luo Z, Edlynn E Z, Roy K. Social support factors as moderators of community violence exposure among inner-city African American young Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 2004, 33:450-462.
40. Hawkins J D, Guo J, Hill K G, Battin-Pearson S, Abbott R D. Long-term effects of the Seattle Social Development Intervention on school bonding trajectories. Applied Developmental Science 2001, 5(4):225-236.
41. Hinton-Nelson M D, Roberts M C, Snyder C R. Early adolescents exposed to violence: Hope and vulnerability to victimization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 1996, 66:346-353.
42. Horton T V, Wallander J L. Hope and social support as resilience factors against psychological distress of mothers who care for children with chronic physical conditions. Rehabilitation Psychology 2001, 46:382-399.
43. Kliewer W, Cunningham J N, Diehl R, Parrish K A, Walker J M, Atiyeh C. Violence exposure and adjustment in inner-city youth: Child and caregiver emotion regulation skill, caregiver-child relationship quality, and neighborhood cohesion as protective factor. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 2004, 33:477-487.
44. Kliewer W, Lepore S J, Oskin D, Johnson P D. The role of social and cognitive processes in children's adjustment to community violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1998, 66:199-209.
45. Kwon P. Hope, defense mechanisms, and adjustment: Implications for false hope and defensive hopelessness. Journal of Personality 2002, 70:63-87.
46. Lewis H A, Kliewer W. Hope, coping, and adjustment among children with sickle cell disease: Tests of mediator and moderator models. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1996, 21:25-41.
47. Luthar S, Cicchetti D, Becker B. The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development 2000, 71:543-562.
48. Lynch M, Cicchetti D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology 1998, 10:235-257.
49. Merrell K W, Gueldner B A, Ross S W, Isava D M. How effective are school bullying intervention programs? A meta-analysis of intervention research. School Psychology Quarterly 2008, 23:26-42.
50. Miller L S, Wasserman G A, Neugebauer R, Gorman-Smith D, Kamboukos D. Witnessed community violence and antisocial behavior in high-risk, urban boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 1999, 28:2-11.
51. Moses A. Exposure to violence, depression, and hostility in a sample of inner city high school youth. Journal of Adolescence 1999, 22:21-32.
52. Reducing risks for mental disorders: Frontiers for preventive intervention research 1994, Mrazek P JHaggerty R J. Eds, Committee on Prevention of Mental Disorders, Institute of Medicine, Washington, DC, National Academy Press
53. Myers K, Winters N C. Ten-year review of rating scales. I: Overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties, and selection. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 2002, 41(2):114-122.
54. Nadel H, Spellman M, Alvarez-Canino T, Lausell-Bryant L, Landsberg G. The cycle of violence and victimization: A study of the school-based intervention of a multidisciplinary youth violence-prevention program. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1996, 12:109-119.
55. Model programs guide. http://www2.dsgonline.com/mpg/Default.aspx, n.d, Retrieved March 6, 2009, from
56. Osofsky H J, Osofsky J D. Violent and aggressive behaviors in youth: A mental health and prevention perspective. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 2001, 64:285-295.
57. Osterman K F. Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research 2000, 70:323-367.
58. Piers E, Harris D. Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale-Revised manual 1984 1984, Los Angeles, Western Psychological Services
59. Reff R C, Kwon P, Campbell D G. Dysphoric responses to a naturalistic stressor: Interactive effects of hope and defense style. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2005, 24:638-648.
60. Richters J E, Martinez P. The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 1993, 56:7-21.
61. Rotter J B. Social learning and clinical psychology 1954, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall
62. Scheier M F, Carver C S. Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology 1985, 4:219-247.
63. Schwab-Stone M E, Ayers T S, Kasprow W, Voyce C, Barone C, Shriver T. No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 1995, 34:1343-1352.
64. Shochet I M, Dadds M R, Ham D, Montague R. School connectedness is an underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: Results of a community prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 2006, 35:170-179.
65. Singer M I, Miller D B, Guo S, Flannery D J, Frierson T, Slovak K. Contributors to violent behavior among elementary and middle school children. Pediatrics 1999, 104:878-884.
66. Snyder C R. Hope and optimism. Encyclopedia of human behavior 1994, 535-542. Ramachandran V S. Ed, Vol. 2, San Diego, CA, Academic Press
67. Snyder C R. Hope theory: Rainbows of the mind. Psychological Inquiry 2002, 13:249-275.
68. Snyder C R, Cheavens J, Sympson S C. Hope: An individual motive for social commerce. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice 1997, 2:107-118.
69. Snyder C R, Harris C, Anderson J R, Holleran S A, Irving L M, Sigmon S T. The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1991, 60:570-585.
70. Snyder C R, Hoza B, Pelham W E, Rapoff M, Ware L, Danovsky M. The development and validation of the Children's Hope Scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1997, 22:399-421.
71. Snyder C R, LaPointe A B, Crowson J J, Early S. Preferences of high- and low-hope people for self-referential feedback. Cognition and Emotion 1998, 12:807-823.
72. Snyder C R, Sympson S C, Ybasco F C, Borders T F, Babyak M A, Higgins R L. Development and validation of the State Hope Scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1996, 70:321-335.
73. Solberg V S H, Carlstrom A H, Howard K A S, Jones J E. Classifying at-risk high school youth: The influence of exposure to community violence and protective factors on academic and health outcomes. The Career Development Quarterly 2007, 55:313-327.
74. Sympson S C, Snyder C R. Development and initial validation of the Domain Specific Hope Scale 1997, Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Kansas, Lawrence
75. Taylor K W, Kliewer W. Violence exposure and early adolescent alcohol use: An exploratory study of family risk and protective factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies 2006, 15:207-221.
76. Bureau of Justice Statistics press release: Indicators of school crime and safety, 2004 2004, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/press/iscs04pr.htm, Retrieved November 2, 2006, from
77. Bureau of Justice Statistics press release: Indicators of school crime and safety, 2005 2005, http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/press/iscs05pr.htm, Retrieved November 2, 2006, from
78. Valle M F, Huebner E S, Suldo S M. An analysis of hope as a psychological strength. Journal of School Psychology 2006, 44:393-406.
79. Wilson D. The interface of school climate and school connectedness and relationships with aggression and victimization. Journal of School Health 2004, 74(7):293-299.
80. Youngstrom E, Weist M D, Albus K E. Exploring violence exposure, stress, protective factors and behavioral problems among inner-city youth. American Journal of Community Psychology 2003, 32:115-129.
81. Bullying, victimization, and peer harassment: A handbook of prevention and intervention 2007, Zins J EElias M JMaher C A. Eds, New York, Haworth Press