Security, the state, and the citizen: The changing architecture of crime control

New Criminal Law Review

Volumn 13, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 379-403

  Zedner, Lucia ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 77952265739     PISSN: 19334192     EISSN: 19334206     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/nclr.2010.13.2.379     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. In 2007, over 218 million passengers crossed the U.K. border. Source: Cabinet Office, Security in a Global Hub: Establishing the UK's New Border Arrangements 5 (2007).
2. Open Up: A Special Report on Migration, The Economist, Jan. 5, 2008, at 4.
3. In 2008, $305 billion was sent in remittances to developing countries. Source: Trickle-Down Economics, The Economist, Feb. 19, 2009.
4. British Home Secretary Jacqui Smith insisted: "it is right in a downturn to be more selective about the skills levels of those migrants, and to do more to put British workers first." Press Release, U.K. Border Agency, Migrant Workers Face Tougher Test to Work in the United Kingdom (Feb. 23, 2009), http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/newsarticles/ migrantworkerstoughertest (last visited Feb. 23, 2009).
5. Christopher Rudolph, Globalization and Security: Migration and Evolving Conceptions of Security in Statecraft and Scholarship, 13 Security Stud. 1 (2003);
6. Alexandra Dobrowolsky, (In)Security and Citizenship: Security, Im/migration and Shrinking Citizenship Regimes, 8 Theoretical Inquiries in Law 628 (2007);
7. Catherine Dauvergne, Making People Illegal: What Globalization Means for Migration and Law (2008).
8. Mary Bosworth, Border Control and the Limits of the Sovereign State, 17 Soc. & Legal Stud. 199 (2008).
9. Jeff Huysmans, The Politics of Insecurity: Fear, Migration and Asylum in the EU 67-69 (2006).
10. Juliet Stumpf, The Crimmigration Crisis: Immigrants, Crime and Sovereign Power, Paper No. 2007-2 Lewis & Clark Law School Legal Research Paper Series (2007).
11. The term "non-citizens" is taken from Mary Bosworth & Mhairi Guild, Governing through Migration Control, 48 Brit. J. Criminology 703, 703 (2008);
12. and the term "irregular citizens" is from Katja Franko Aas, "Security-at-a-Distance": Globalization and the Shifting Boundaries of Criminology, in The New Economy of Security: Contemporary Insecurities and the Pluralization of Coercive Force (Ian Loader & Sarah Percy eds., forthcoming).
13. See also Matthew Gibney, Who Should Be Included? Non-Citizens, Conflict and the Constitution of the Citizenry, Crise Working Paper No.17 (2006).
14. For example, under amendments made by the Immigration, Asylum and Nationality Act of 2006, British nationals can be deprived of their citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied that "deprivation is conducive to the public good." This represented a toughening up of previous provisions that permitted British nationals to be deprived of their citizenship only for acts "seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory."
15. Dominique Leydet, Citizenship, in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (E. Zalta ed., 2006).
16. See, e.g., the Home Office White Paper, Fairer, Faster, Firmer: A Modern Approach to Immigration and Asylum (Cm.4018 1998), which led to the Immigration and Asylum Act of 1999.
17. See also the discussion in Bosworth & Guild, supra n. 9.
18. Tony Blair, The Duty to Integrate: Shared British Values, Speech on Multiculturalism and Integration, Delivered at Number 10 Downing Street, London, for the "Our Nation's Future" Lecture (Dec. 8, 2006), quoted in Dobrowolsky, supra n. 5, at 660.
19. Liberty, Liberty's Response to the Home Office Consultation Paper, The Path to Citizenship: Next Steps in Reforming the Immigration System 3 (2008).
20. Elena Jurado, Citizenship: Tool or Reward? The Role of Citizenship Policy in the Process of Integration (2008).
21. New measures include the points-based system designed to "build on a package of measures already being introduced to deliver a more secure border." These include: new electronic checks to count people in and out of the United Kingdom, a "clamp down on illegal immigration," fingerprinting of visa applicants abroad, and the introduction of ID cards for foreign nationals, http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/newsarticles/ 2007/planstomanagemigration (last visited Mar. 5, 2009).
22. Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act (2009) § 40.
23. Home Office, Earning the Right to Stay: A New Points Test for Citizenship (London: Home Office, 2009).
24. Anne Bostanci, British Citizenship: A Debate of Paradoxes 6 (2008).
25. Home Office, Impact Assessment of Earned Citizenship Proposals (2009), http:// www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/managingourborders/ border-citimm-bill/ (last visited Feb. 24, 2009).
26. Equality and Diversity Forum, Response to The Path to Citizenship: The Next Steps in Reforming the Immigration System (2008);
27. Liberty, Liberty's Evidence to the Joint Committee on Human Rights Call for Evidence on the Draft Legislative Programme 2008-2009, 6 (2008).
28. Home Office, U.K. Border Agency, Government's New Bill Shakes up the Route to Citizenship, http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/ newsarticles/new-billroute-to-citizenship (last visited Feb. 24, 2009).
29. Statistics published under § 95 Criminal Justice Act 1991. Ministry of Justice, Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System, 2006 (2007).
30. The Guardian, Migrant Crime Wave a Myth: Police Study, Apr. 16, 2008, http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2008/apr/16/immigrationpolicy.immigration (last visited Feb. 24, 2009).
31. The term "earned citizenship" appears throughout government policy papers, briefings, and perhaps most strikingly throughout the impact assessment published prior to the Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act of 2009. Home Office, Impact Assessment of Earned Citizenship Proposals (2009), http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/managingourborders/ border-cit-imm-bill/ (last visited Feb. 24, 2009).
32. The official rationale for the Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act is that it "reinforces the idea that British citizenship, with its associated benefits, is something to be earned rather than a right." Home Office, U.K. Border Agency, Impact Assessment of Earned Citizenship Proposals (2009), http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/ managingourborders/border-cit-imm-bill/ (last visited Feb. 24, 2009).
33. See also W. Schinkel, The Moralisation of Citizenship in Dutch Integration Discourse, 1 Amsterdam L.F. (2008).
34. Home Office Border & Immigration Agency, The Path to Citizenship: Next Steps in Reforming the Immigration System 12 (Consultation Paper, Feb. 2008), http://www. ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/aboutus/ consultations/pathtocitizenship/ (last visited Feb. 24, 2010).
35. Id. at 29.
36. Liberty, Liberty's Response to the Home Office Consultation Paper, "The Path to Citizenship: Next Steps in Reforming the Immigration System" 8 (2008).
37. Runnymede Trust, Written Evidence on the Draft Immigration and Citizenship Bill 4 (2008).
38. Chris Huhne, Citizenship Proposals are "Un-British," The Guardian, Aug. 4, 2009, http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/ 2009/aug/04/british-citizenshipfreedom-expression (last visited Oct. 10, 2009).
39. David Cole, Against Citizenship as a Predicate for Basic Rights, 75 Fordham L.R. 2541, 2548 (2007).
40. Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, Submission to the Joint Committee on Human Rights' Call for Evidence on the Draft Legislative Programme: Citizenship, Immigration and Borders Bill 11 (2008).
41. Jurado, supra n. 15, at 11.
42. For a historical analysis, see Barry Vaughan, Punishment and Conditional Citizenship, 2 Punishment & Soc'y 23 (2000).
43. Peter Ramsay, The Theory of Vulnerable Autonomy and the Legitimacy of Civil Preventative Orders, in Regulating Deviance: The Redirection of Criminalisation and the Futures of Criminal Law (Bernadette McSherry et al. eds., 2009).
44. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract 79 (1968).
45. Antony Duff, Inclusion and Exclusion: Citizens, Subjects and Outlaws, 51 Current Legal Probs. 241 (1998), at 243.
46. Home Office, Rebalancing the Criminal Justice System in Favour of the Law-Abiding Majority: Cutting Crime, Reducing Reoffending and Protecting the Public (2006);
47. John Pratt, Penal Populism (2007).
48. For example, a study by Susanne Karstedt and Stephen Farrall revealed that 61 percent of respondents admitted to an offense against business, government, or employers. Cited in Runnymede Trust, supra n. 30, at 5.
49. Carlos Gomez-Jara Diez, Enemy Combatants versus Enemy Criminal Law, 11 N. Crim. L. Rev. 529, 558 (2008).
50. Günther Jakobs, Kriminalisierung im Vorfeld einer Rechtsgutsverletzung, 97 Zeitschrift für die Gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft 751 (1985) (Deutsch);
51. Gomez-Jara Diez, id.;
52. Susanne Krasmann, The Enemy on the Border: Critique of a Programme in Favour of a Preventive State, 9 Punishment & Soc'y 301 (2007).
53. For an excellent overview, see Gomez-Jara Diez, supra n. 41.
54. See also Dubber, this volume.
55. See discussion id. at 545. Günther Jakobs, Staatliche Strafe: Bedeutung und Zweck 26 (2004).
56. Gomez-Jara Diez, supra n. 41, at 533.
57. Jeremy Waldron, Security and Liberty: The Image of Balance, 11 J. Pol. Phil. 191 (2003);
58. Lucia Zedner, Securing Liberty in the Face of Terror: Reflections from Criminal Justice, 32 J. L. & Soc'y 507 (2005).
59. David Cole, Enemy Aliens: Double Standards and Constitutional Freedoms in the War on Terrorism 7 (2003).
60. Id. at 9.
61. Id. at 10-11.
62. Cass Sunstein, Laws of Fear: Beyond the Precautionary Principle 204 (2005).
63. Cole, supra n. 47, at 11.
64. See also the reasoning in the landmark decision A v. SSHD [2004] UKHL 56;
65. [2005] 2 WLR 87.
66. Aas, supra n. 9.
67. Liora Lazarus, Mapping the Right to Security, in Security and Human Rights (Ben Goold & Liora Lazarus eds., 2007).
68. David Dyzenhaus, The Permanence of the Temporary: Can Emergency Powers Be Normalized?, in The Security of Freedom: Essays on Canada's Anti-Terrorism Bill (Ronald Daniels et al. eds., 2001);
69. Oren Gross, Cutting Down Trees: Law-Making under the Shadow of Great Calamities, in The Security of Freedom: Essays on Canada's Anti- Terrorism Bill (Ronald Daniels et al. eds., 2001).
70. One such example is the curtailment of the right to silence introduced originally against suspected IRA terrorists under the Criminal Evidence Order (Northern Ireland) (1988) and later extended to all criminal suspects under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act of 1994.
71. See Paddy Hillyard, The Normalization of Special Powers from Northern Ireland to Britain, in A Reader on Criminal Justice (Nicola Lacey ed., 1994).
72. ASBOs have attracted particular attention. See, e.g., Andrew Ashworth, Social Control and Anti-Social Behaviour Order: The Subversion of Human Rights?, 120 L.Q. Rev. (2004);
73. Elizabeth Burney, Making People Behave: Anti-Social Behaviour, Politics and Policy (2005);
74. Peter Ramsay, Legitimating Government with Civil Preventive Orders, in Regulating Deviance: The Redirection of Criminalisation and the Futures of Criminal Law (Bernadette McSherry et al. eds., 2008);
75. Andrew von Hirsch & Andrew Simester eds., Incivilites: Regulating Offensive Behaviour (2006).
76. Ramsay, supra n. 36.
77. David Bonner, Checking the Executive? Detention without Trial, Control Orders, Due Process and Human Rights, 12 Eur. Pub. L. 45 (2006);
78. Lucia Zedner, Preventive Justice or Pre-Punishment? The Case of Control Orders, 59 Current Legal Probs. 174 (2007).
79. Peter Ramsay, The Responsible Subject as Citizen: Criminal Law, Democracy and the Welfare State, 69 Mod. L. Rev. 29, 51 (2006).
80. Bryan Turner, Social Capital, Trust and Offensive Behaviour, in Incivilities: Regulating Offensive Behaviour 231 (Andrew von Hirsch & Andrew Simester eds., 2006);
81. Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (1998).
82. Adam Crawford, Governing through Anti-Social Behaviour: Regulatory Challenges to Criminal Justice, 49 Brit. J. Criminology 810 (2009).
83. Zedner, supra n. 59.
84. Adam Crawford, "Contractual Governance" of Deviant Behaviour, 30 J.L. & Soc'y 479 (2003).
85. Zedner, supra n. 59;
86. Hazel Kemshall & Mike Maguire, Public Protection, Partnership and Risk Penality: The Multi-Agency Risk Management of Sexual and Violent Offenders, 3 Punishment & Soc'y (2001).
87. Lucia Zedner, Seeking Security by Eroding Rights: The Side-Stepping of Due Process in Security and Human Rights (Benjamin Goold & Liora Lazarus eds., 2007).
88. Clive Walker, Prisoners of "War All the Time," 1 Eur. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 50 (2005).
89. In A v. SSHD [2004] UKHL 56.
90. The House of Lords in R v. H and C [2004] UKHL 3, [2004] 2 AC 134 held that "special Counsel" (in effect a Special Advocate) might exceptionally be appointed in a criminal case. The House held however that such an appointment will always be exceptional, never automatic; a course of last and never first resort; and should not be ordered unless and until the trial judge is satisfied that no other course will adequately meet the overriding requirement of fairness to the defendant. See Special Advocates Support Office, A Guide to the Role of Special Advocates and the Special Advocates Support Office Open Manual 20 (2006), http://www.attorneygeneral.gov.uk/attachments/ Special-Advocates.pdf (last visited Nov. 26, 2008).
91. Quoted by Claire Dyer, MPs Demand Reform of Special Advocate System, The Guardian, Apr. 4, 2005.
92. Secretary of State for the Home Department v. AF and Another (2009) UKHL 28.
93. Andrew Ashworth, Is the Criminal Law a Lost Cause?, 116 L.Q. Rev. 225 (2000);
94. Andrew Ashworth & Lucia Zedner, Defending the Criminal Law: Reflections on the Changing Character of Crime, Procedure, and Sanctions, 2 Crim. L. & Phil. 21 (2008).
95. Duff, supra n. 38, at 265.
96. Id. at 257.
97. Cole, supra n. 32.
98. Klaus Günther, World Citizens between Freedom and Security, 12 Constellations 379 (2005).
99. Rudolph, supra n. 5.
100. Witness the heated debates about assisted suicide, euthanasia, and abortion.
101. Glanville Williams, The Definition of a Crime, Current Legal Probs. 107 (1955).
102. James Nickel, Due Process Rights and Terrorist Emergencies, 1 Eur. J. Legal Stud. (2007), http://www.ejls.eu/1/12UK.htm (last visited Mar. 10, 2009).
103. Some basis for optimism is to be found in the Goldsmith Review: Lord Goldsmith QC, Citizenship: Our Common Bond, Ministry of Justice (2008).