(In)Security and citizenship: Security, im/migration and shrinking citizenship regimes

Theoretical Inquiries in Law

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2007, Pages

  Dobrowolsky, Alexandra ^a  

^a SAINT MARY S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34547328650     PISSN: None     EISSN: 15653404     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2202/1565-3404.1163     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. Robyn Rodriguez & Nerissa S. Balce, American Insecurity and Radical Filipino Community Politics, 16 PEACE REV. 131, 132 (2004).
2. The hysterical reaction of the U.S. government, with its imposition of severe restrictions on the liberties of its terrified citizens, its extensive buildup of intelligence and surveillance apparatuses, its racial and ethnic profiling, its widespread questioning and detention of individuals of Middle Eastern origin and blockage of their bank accounts or businesses, and its wars on Afghanistan and Iraq, menacingly points to the path ahead. Haideh Moghissi, September 11 and Middle Eastern Women: Shrinking Space for Critical Thinking and Oppositional Politics, 29 SIGNS 594, 594 (2004).
3. Charlotte Bunch, A Feminist Human Rights Lens, 16 PEACE REV. 29, 29 (2004).
4. Jane Jenson & Susan D. Phillips, Regime Shift: New Citizenship Practices in Canada, 14 INT'L J. CAN. STUD. 111, 111 (1996).
5. In Canada and Britain respectively, see JOE CARENS, CULTURE, CITIZENSHIP AND COMMUNITY (2000);
6. TERESA HAYTER, OPEN BORDERS: THE CASE AGAINST IMMIGRATION CONTROLS (2d ed. 2004).
7. SEYLA BENHABIB, THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS: ALIENS, RESIDENTS AND CITIZENS (2004).
8. Charlotte M. Janssen, The Smart Border: Movement of People - Immigration and Refugee/Asylum and Other Aspects, 29 CAN.-U.S. L.J. 127, 127 (2003).
9. YASMEEN ABU-LABAN & CHRISTINA GABRIEL, SELLING DIVERSITY: IMMIGRATION, MULTICULTURALISM, EMPLOYMENT EQUITY AND GLOBALIZATION 61 (2002).
10. Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, 2001 S.C., ch. 27 (Can.).
11. Jane Jenson & Denis Saint-Martin, New Routes to Social Cohesion? Citizenship and the Social Investment State, 28 CAN. J. Soc. 77 (2003);
12. Deena White, Policy and Solidarity, Orphans of the New Model of Social Cohesion, 28 CAN. J. Soc. 51 (2003);
13. Janine Brodie, Glabalizatian, In/Security, and the Paradoxes of the Social, in POWER, PRODUCTION AND SOCIAL REPRODUCTION 47, 48 (Isabella Bakker & Stephen Gill eds., 2002).
14. This was not only reflected in countless policies, but even in the creation of new institutions, as with the Social Exclusion Unit (SEU) installed in the first year of Tony Blair's first term in office (in December 1997).
15. Ben Kisby, Social Capital and Citizenship Education in Schools, 1 BRIT. POL. 151 (2006).
16. Alexandra Dobrowolsky with Ruth Lister, Social Exclusion and Changes to Citizenship: Women and Children, Minorities and Migrants in Britain, in WOMEN, MIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP: MAKING LOCAL, NATIONAL AND TRANSNATIONAL CONNECTIONS 149 (Evangelia Tastsoglou & Alexandra Dobrowolsky eds., 2006).
17. William Walters, Secure Borders, Safe Haven, Domopolitics, 8 CITIZENSHIP STUD. 237, 238 (2004).
18. Tough on Rhetoric, GUARDIAN WKLY., Feb. 11-17, 2005, at 3.
19. Id. at 3.
20. Brodie, supra note 10, at 51.
21. For a more detailed examination of this tendency, see Catherine Dauvergne, Evaluating Canada's New Immigration and Refugee Protection Act in its Global Context, 41 ALTA. L. REV. 725 (2003). Immigration policies in North America are now tied to national security concerns.
22. See RONALD J. DANIELS ET AL., THE SECURITY OF FREEDOM: ESSAYS ON CANADA'S ANTI-TERRORISM BILL (2001);
23. Audrey Macklin, Borderline Security, in THE SECURITY OF FREEDOM: ESSAYS ON CANADA'S ANTI-TERRORISM BILL, supra, at 383;
24. ABU-LABAN & GABRIEL, supra note 8;
25. KENT ROACH, SEPTEMBER 11: CONSEQUENCES FOR CANADA (2003);
26. DANIEL DRACHE, BORDERS MATTER: HOMELAND SECURITY AND THE SEARCH FOR NORTH AMERICA (2004);
27. Reginald Whitaker, The Security State, in CANADIAN POLITICS 223 (James Bickerton & Alain G. Gagnon eds., 4th ed. 2004). The same is true in many wealthier immigration counties around the world.
28. See Evelien Brouwer, Immigration, Asylum and Terrorism; A Changing Dynamic Legal and Practical Developments in the EU in Response to the Terrorist Attacks of 11.09, 4 EUR. J. MIGRATION & L. 399 (2002);
29. Thomas Faist, "Extension du domaine de la lutte" International Migration and Security Before and After September 11, 2001, 36 INT'L MIGRATION REV. 7 (2002);
30. Michael Humphreys, Refugees: An Endangered Species?, 39 J. SOC. 31 (2003);
31. Sophie Robin-Olivier, Citizens and Noncitizens in Europe: European Union Measures Against Terrorism After September 11, 25 B.C. THIRD WORLD L.J. 197 (2005).
32. Canada's IRPA incorporates various security concerns into its objectives. Some even argue that, post 9/11, Canada "restored the traditional discriminatory practice of dividing immigrants into preferred and nonpreferred groups based on country of origin. However, the rationale for distinguishing the two groups differs; in the past, the goal was to select immigrants who were best able to integrate into Canadian society, while now the concern is to protect Canadians from immigrants who are suspected as security threats." Erin Kruger et al., Canada After 11 September: Security Measures and "Preferred" Immigrants, MEDITERRANEAN Q., Fall 2004, at 72, 86 (2004).
33. Walters, supra note 14, at 239.
34. Joe Friesen, Blair Announces Tough Anti-Terrorism Measures, GLOBE & MAIL, Aug. 6, 2005, at A13.
35. Anti-Terrorism Act, 2001 S.C., ch. C-41 (Can.).
36. Criminal Code, R.S.C., ch. C-46 (1985) (Can.).
37. Canadian Council for Refugees, Key Issues: Immigration and Refugee Protection (Mar. 2004), http://www.web.net/~ccr/keyissues.htm.
38. PRIVY COUNCIL OFFICE, CANADA, SECURING AN OPEN SOCIETY: CANADA'S NATIONAL SECURITY POLICY 1, 42 (2004). On the genesis and work of the Canada Border Services Agency, see Canada, Government's Role in Public Safety (Jan. 9, 2007), http://www.safecanada.ca/role_e.asp?DeptID-48.
39. Kruger et al., supra note 18, at 79.
40. Virginia Helen Henning, Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001: Has the United Kingdom Made a Valid Derogation From the European Convention on Human Rights?, 17 AM. U. INT'L L. REV. 1263, 1265 (2002).
41. Phillip Johnston, Terror Suspects Rounded Up, DAILY TELEGRAPH, Dec. 13, 2001, at P2.
42. Friesen, supra note 20, at A13.
43. See also Statement by Prime Minister Tony Blair (Aug. 5, 2005), available at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,22989-1722621,00. html.
44. LIBERTY, ANTI-TERRORISM LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 21 (n.d.).
45. Tough on Rhetoric, supra note 15, at 3; Workpermit.com, UK - Labour Government's New Five Year Plan for Immigration (Feb. 7, 2005), www.workpermit.com/news/2005_02_07/uk/labour_five_year_plan.htm?PHPSESSI.
46. ANTHONY GIDDENS, THE THIRD WAY: THE RENEWAL OF SOCIAL DEMOCRACY (1998).
47. CATHERINE DAUVERGNE, HUMANITARIANISM, IDENTITY & NATION: MIGRATION LAWS IN CANADA AND AUSTRALIA 6 (2005).
48. Walters, supra note 14, at 239.
49. Tough on Rhetoric, supra note 15, at 3.
50. Workpermit.com, supra note 30 (citing Home Secretary Charles Clarke).
51. Wesley W. Pue, The War on Terror: Constitutional Governance in a State of Permanent Warfare, 41 OSGOODE HALL L.J. 267 (2003).
52. See Adriana Kemp, Managing Migration, Reprioritizing National Citizenship: Undocumented Labor Migrants' Children and Policy Reforms in Israel, 8 THEORETICAL INQUIRIES L. 663 (2007).
53. For example, the Law Lords ruled that practices initiated in July 2001 to block Roma people from flying to Britain (e.g., stationing British immigration officers at the Prague airport) amounted to '"inherent and systematic' racism." Derek Brown, Asylum Scheme Ruled Racist, GUARDIAN WKLY., Dec. 17-23, 2004, at 12. On Canada,
54. see Sunera Thobani, Closing Ranks: Racism and Sexism in Canada's Immigration Policy, 42 RACE & CLASS 35 (2000).
55. On why Canadian immigrants and their communities "feel more insecure and threatened in the post-9/11 security environment," see Edna Keeble, Immigration Civil Liberties, and National/Homeland Security, 60 INT'L J. 359, 372 (2005). Growing evidence shows "that immigration practices towards nationals from specific, predominantly Muslim countries include profiling, and that airport security personnel profile non-citizens and citizens alike," especially "differentially targeting" Arabs, persons of Middle Eastern appearance or Muslims.
56. Yasmeen Abu-Laban, The New North America and the Segmentation of Canadian Citizenship, 29 INT'L J. CAN. STUD. 17, 26 (2004).
57. Denise Helly, Are Muslims Discriminated Against in Canada since September 2001?, 36 CAN. ETHNIC. STUD. 24 (2004).
58. Moghissi, supra note 2, at 595-96.
59. "The one woman in a publicly prominent White House position . . . Condoleeza Rice ... played a relatively limited role." Hilary Charlesworth & Christine Chinkin, Sex, Gender and September 11, 96 AM. J. INT'L L. 600, 600-01 (2002).
60. Monia Mazigh, who tirelessly worked to publicize the injustices committed against her husband Maher Arar, provided a rare glimpse of the disastrous effects of his ordeal on herself and her two young children. See Monia Mazigh, Please Send My Husband Home, GLOBE & MAIL, Jan. 18, 2003, at A19.
61. Linda Basch, Human Security, Globalization and Feminist Visions, 16 PEACE REV. 5 (2004);
62. J. Ann Tickner, Feminist Responses to International Security Studies, 16 PEACE REV. 43 (2004).
63. Thobani, supra note 38, at 39.
64. Janet Salaff & Arent Greve, Why Do Skilled Women and Men Emigrating from China to Canada Get Bad Jobs?, in WOMEN, MIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP 85 (Evangelia Tastsoglou & Alexandra Dobrowolsky eds., 2006)
65. Tania Branigan, Council Warns of Anti-Islamic Backlash, GUARDIAN WKLY., Aug. 20-26, 2004, at 14.
66. Hamida Ghafour, U.K. Targets the Veil and Critics Are Asking Why, GLOBE & MAIL, Oct. 18, 2006, at A3.
67. The citizenship regime concept, and the theorization and categories that stem from this concept, are taken from the work of Jane Jenson. See Jenson & Phillips, supra note 4;
68. Alexandra Dobrowolsky & Jane Jenson, Shifting Representations of Citizenship: Canadian Politics of "Women" and "Children, " 11 SOC. POL. 154 (2004).
69. Isabella Bakker & Stephen Gill, Global Political Economy and Social Reproduction, in POWER, PRODUCTION AND SOCIAL REPRODUCTION, supra note 10, at 3, 10.
70. Aiwa Ong, (Re)Articulations of Citizenship, 38 PS: POL. SCI. & POL. 697, 698 (2005).
71. Alexandra Dobrowolsky, Rhetoric Versus Reality: The Figure of the Child and New Labour's Strategic "Social Investment" State, 69 STUD. POL. ECON. 43 (2002);
72. Jenson & Saint-Martin, supra note 10;
73. Ruth Lister, Investing in the Citizen-Workers of the Future: Transformations in Citizenship and the State Under New Labour, 37 SOC. POL'Y & ADMIN. 427 (2003);
74. Alexandra Dobrowolsky, The Chrétien Legacy and Women: Changing Policy Priorities with Little Cause for Celebration, 9 REV. CONST. STUD. 171 (2004);
75. Alexandra Dobrowolsky & Jane Jenson, Social Investment Perspectives and Practices: A Decade in British Politics, 17 SOC. POL'Y REV. 203 (2005);
76. Alexandra Dobrowolsky & Denis Saint-Martin, Agency, Actors and Change in a Child-Focused Future, 43 J. COMMONWEALTH & COMP. POL. 1 (2005).
77. Bryan Turner, The Erosion of Citizenship, 52 BRIT. J. SOC. 189, 190-92 (2001);
78. Lister, supra note 52.
79. Jenson & Saint-Martin, supra note 10.
80. See sources cited supra note 52;
81. as well as GIDDENS, supra note 31;
82. and Bob Jessop, From the KWNS to the SWPR, in RETHINKING SOCIAL POLICY 171 (Gail Lewis et al. eds., 2000).
83. The Smart Border Declaration was signed on December 12, 2001 between American Governor Tom Ridge and Canada's Deputy Prime Minister John Manley. See Canada, Smart Border Declaration: Building a Smart Border for the 21st Century on the Foundation of a North American Zone of Confidence (Dec. 12, 2001), http://geo.international.gc.ca/can-am/main/border/ smart_border_declaration-en.asp.
84. PRIVY COUNCIL OFFICE, CANADA, supra note 24, at 43.
85. Id. at 43.
86. Id. at 41.
87. Jeff Sallot, Ottawa Unveils Security Plan to Beef up Defence, GLOBE & MAIL, Apr. 28, 2004, at A5.
88. Priority One 28 Tax Cuts, GLOBE & MAIL, May 5, 2006, at A1.
89. Ulrich Beck et al., The Theory of Reflexive Modernization: Problematic, Hypotheses, and Research Programme, 20 THEORY CULTURE & SOC. 1, 10 (2003).
90. This example is cited in CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF HOUSING, PROVIDING A SAFE HAVEN - HOUSING ASYLUM SEEKERS AND REFUGEES 4 (2003).
91. Asylum and Immigration (Treatment of Claimants) Act, 2004, c. 19, § 9 (U.K.).
92. David Ward & Owen Bowcroft, Failed Asylum Seeker Evicted Under Pilot Project, GUARDIAN WKLY., Sept. 2-8, 2005, at 14.
93. Dobrowolsky with Lister, supra note 13.
94. Bakker & Gill, supra note 50.
95. According to the former Immigration Minister Judy Sgro, another justification for "speeding up the system" is "to reduce potential abuse." She went on to explain, "removing unsuccessful refugee claimants in a timely manner is a critical factor in developing refugee policy." Judy Sgro, Canada's Refugee Program: Upholding Our Humanitarian Tradition into the 21st Century, Address Prepared for the Consultative Committee on Practices and Procedures of the Immigration and Refugee Board (May 11, 2004) (notes on file with author).
96. From 2002-2003, the Liberal government provided funding to develop partnerships with immigrant-serving NGO's to "Strengthen Settlement Capacity." Yasmeen Abu-Laban, Jean Chrétien's Immigration Policy, in THE CHRÉTIEN LEGACY: POLITICS AND PUBLIC POLICY IN CANADA 141, 145 (Lois Harder & Steve Patten eds., 2006).
97. DIANE CROCKER ET AL., SECURITY AND IMMIGRATION CHANGES AND CHALLENGES: IMMIGRANT AND ETHNIC COMMUNITIES IN ATLANTIC CANADA, PRESUMED GUILTY? (forthcoming 2007).
98. DAUVERGNE, supra note 32, at 17.
99. Alex Mazer, Debating the Anti-Terrorist Legislation: Lessons Learned, CAN. PARLIAMENTARY REV., Summer 2003, at 21.
100. Dirk Haubrich, September 11, Anti-Terror Laws and Civil Liberties: Britain, France and Germany Compared, 38 GOV'T & OPPOSITION 3, 8 (2003).
101. See CROCKER ET AL., supra note 70.
102. Omar El Akkad, Muslims Say CSIS Has Spies in Many Mosques, GLOBE & MAIL, July 29, 2006, at A1.
103. To be sure, there are some exceptions. For instance, IRPA contains some compassionate grounds, but these deal with children. See DAUVERGNE, supra note 32, at 147. This, interestingly enough, fits with social investment, as the figure of the child is prominent in its discourses and policy priorities. And yet, with a growing securitization thrust, even these types of concerns get edged out.
104. Reem Bahdi, No Exit: Racial Profiling and Canada's War Against Terrorism, 41 OSGOODE HALL L.J. 293, 316 (2003).
105. Haubrich, supra note 73, at 7.
106. Id. at 19.
107. David M. Paciocco, Constitutional Casualties of September 11: Limiting the Legacy of the Anti-Terrorism Act, 12 SUP. CT. L. REV. 183, 189 (2002).
108. Stephen J. Toope, Fallout from 9-11: Will A Security Culture Undermine Human Rights?, 65 SASKATCHEWAN L. REV. 281, 286 (2002).
109. Faisal A. Bhabha, Tracking "Terrorists" or Solidfying Stereotyipes? Canada's Anti-Terrorism Act in Light of the Charter's Equality Guarantee, 16 WINDSOR REV. LEGAL & SOC. ISSUES 95, 97 (2003).
110. Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982, being schedule B to the Canada Act 1982, ch. 11 (U.K.).
111. Bhabha, supra note 82, at 120.
112. Kent Roach, The Dangers of a Charter-Proof and Crime-Based Response to Terrorism, in THE SECURITY OF FREEDOM: ESSAYS ON CANADA'S ANTI-TERRORISM BILL, supra note 18, at 131.
113. Abu-Laban, supra note 39, at 32.
114. Abu-Laban, supra note 69, at 153.
115. See Victoria M. Esses et al., Public Attitudes Toward Immigration in the United States and Canada in Response to the September 11 "Attack on America," 2 ANALYSES SOC. ISSUES & PUB. POL'Y 69 (2002).
116. Kruger et al., supra note 18, at 85.
117. Reem Bahdi, No Exit: Racial Profiling and Canada's War Against Terrorism, 41 OSGOODE HALL L.J. 293 (2003);
118. CROCKER ET AL., supra note 70.
119. WILLIAM NORMAN COXALL ET AL., CONTEMPORARY BRITISH POLITICS 394 (4th ed. 2003).
120. Branigan, supra note 47, at 14.
121. Peter Small & Christian Cotroneo, "We Don't Welcome You Anymore": Foreign-Born Canadians Find Trouble at U.S. Border, TORONTO STAR, Nov. 7, 2002, at A3.
122. CROCKER ET AL., supra note 70.
123. Yasmeen Abu-Laban, Liberalism, Multiculturalism and the Problem of Essentialism, 6 CITIZENSHIP STUD. 476, 476 (2002);
124. Macklin, supra note 18.
125. CROCKER ET AL., supra note 70.
126. Abu-Laban, supra note 69, at 147.
127. Id. at 148.
128. HOME OFFICE, THE END OF PARALLEL LIVES? REPORT OF THE SOCIAL COHESION PANEL (2004).
129. Joe Friesen, Blame Canada (For Multiculturalism)?, GLOBE & MAIL, Aug. 20, 2005, at F8.
130. HOME OFFICE, supra note 99, at 8.
131. Friesen, supra note 100, at F8.
132. Doug Saunders, Scheme to Boost Britishness Looks Like a Stale Crumpet, GLOBE & MAIL, Feb. 4, 2006, at A15.
133. YASMEEN ALIBHAI-BROWN, IMAGINING THE NEW BRITAIN 105 (2001).
134. Tony Blair, The Duty to Integrate: Shared British Values, Speech on Multiculturalism and Integration Delivered at Number 10 Downing Street, London, for the "Our Nation's Future" Lecture (Dec. 8, 2006), available at http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page10563.asp.
135. Brodie, supra note 10, at 65.