Beasts of burden: Animals and laboratory research in colonial India

History of Science

Volumn 48, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 125-151

  Chakrabarti, Pratik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KENT   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 77950676178     PISSN: 00732753     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/007327531004800201     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. Papers and correspondence of John Cunningham, 1880-1968, GB 0237 Gen. 2004, E. 15, Special Collections, Edinburgh University Library.
2. N. Rupke (ed.), Vivisection in historical perspective (London, 1987).
3. B. Harrison, "Animals and the state in nineteenth-century England", English historical review, lxxxviii (1973), 786-820.
4. M. E. Lynch, "Sacrifice and the transformation of the animal body into a scientific object: Laboratory culture and ritual practice in the neurosciences", Social studies of science, xviii (1988), 265-89.
5. J. Simon, "Monitoring the stable at the Pasteur Institute", Science in context, xxi (2008), 181-200.
6. B. Latour, Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, MA, and London, 1988).
7. Ibid., 12.
8. For such a critique see Langdon Winner, "Upon opening the black box and finding it empty: Social constructivism and the philosophy of technology", Science, technology, & human values, xviii (1993), 362-78.
9. M. Willis, "Unmasking immortality: Popular opposition to laboratory science in late Victorian Britain", in D. Clifford, E. Wadge, A. Warwick and M. Willis (eds), Repositioning Victorian sciences: Shifting centres in nineteenth-century thinking (London, 2006), 207-18.
10. J. Turner, Reckoning with the beast: Animals, pain, and humanity in the Victorian mind (Baltimore and London, 1980).
11. A. Franklin, Animals and modern cultures: A sociology of human - animal relations in modernity (London, 1999), 2-6.
12. L. Van Sittert, "'Keeping the enemy at bay': The extermination of wild carnivora in the Cape Colony, 1880-1910", Environmental history, iii (1998), 336-56;
13. M. Rangarajan, "The Raj and the natural world: The war against 'dangerous beasts' in colonial India", Studies in history, xiv (1998), 265-99.
14. See Rangarajan, "The Raj and the natural world" (ref. 12);
15. K. Brown, "Tropical medicine and animal diseases: Onderstepoort and the development of veterinary science in South Africa 1908-1950", Journal of Southern African studies, xxxi (2005), 513-29;
16. D. K. Davis, "Brutes, beasts and empire: Veterinary medicine and environmental policy in French North Africa and British India", Journal of historical geography, xxxiv (2007), 242-67.
17. For a study of early nineteenth-century British attitudes towards Indian animals, see S. Sivasundaram, "Trading knowledge: The East India Company's elephants in India and Britain", The historical journal, xlviii (2005), 27-63.
18. David Arnold, Colonizing the body: State medicine and epidemic disease in nineteenth-century India (Berkeley, 1993).
19. J. H. Mills, "Body as target, violence as treatment: Psychiatric regimes in colonial and post-colonial India", in Confronting the body: The politics of physicality in colonial and post-colonial India, ed. by J. H. Mills and Satadru Sen (London, 2004), 86-101, p. 96.
20. E. M. Collingham, Imperial bodies: The physical experience of the Raj, c. 1800-1947 (Cambridge, 2001), 143-4.
21. C. Anderson, Legible bodies: Race, criminality and colonialism in South Asia (Oxford, 2004).
22. One scientist wrote about this difference about chloroform in the two cities in the 1850s as: "in Edinburgh chloroform was proverbially safe, in London notoriously dangerous". John Stewart, "Chloroform anásthesia", The Canadian Medical Association journal, iv (1914), 1053-64, p. 1054.
23. The states of British India that were ruled by native princes before the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
24. Report of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission (Bombay, 1891), 3.
25. "The Hyderabad Commission on Chloroform", The lancet, 2 March 1889, 438.
26. Report of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission (ref. 20), 6.
27. E. Lawrie, "The Hyderabad Chloroform Commission, Correspondence", The lancet, 21 September 1889, 601-2.
28. Report of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission (ref. 20), 11.
29. The lancet, 7 December 1889, 1183.
30. K. B. Thomas, "Chloroform: commissions and omissions", Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, lxvii (1974), 723-30, p. 726.
31. As quoted in A. H. B. Masson, J. Wilson and B. C. Hovell, "Edward Lawrie of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission", British journal of anaesthetics, xli (1969), 1002-11, p. 1006.
32. Report of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission (ref. 20), 25. To give a few examples, "Complete, or almost complete, asphyxia, as by forcibly closing the nose and mouth, smothering by holding the mouth and nose tightly closed, ⋯ smothering again while the animal was well under chloroform, smothering again when it was just about to come out of chloroform ⋯ [given chloroform again] ⋯ smothering again. These observations were accompanied by very violent struggling, and the smothering was consequently ineffective ⋯ smothering again ⋯ chloroform was then pushed until respiration ceased, and the animal died in spite of artificial respiration", ibid., 19.
33. "The report of the second Hyderabad Chloroform Commission", The lancet, 21 June 1890, 1369.
34. However, the findings of the Commission were ultimately rejected in London. In a short time physiologists had devised experiments that seemed to demonstrate errors in the Hyderabad methods, and the medical press asserted that human beings continued to die in England under chloroform from paralysis of the heart, and that ether was the better alternative. By the early twentieth century it was banned in most Western nations, "American Medical Association Committee on Anaesthesia" (1912). Some of the important Chloroform Committees and Commissions were: Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society (1864), The Glasgow Committee (1877), British Medical Association Anaesthetics Committee (1891), British Medical Association Special Chloroform Committee (1901), see K. B. Thomas, "Chloroform: Commissions and omissions", Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, lxvii (1974), 723-30. In India until 1928, chloroform was the only anaesthetic used. It was cheap and easy to use.
35. L. Brunton, J. Fayrer and L. Rogers, "A method of preventing death from snake bite, capable of common and easy practical application", Indian medical gazette, xxxix (1904), 327-33.
36. Indian journal of medical research, ii (1914-15), 126.
37. Brunton et al., "A method of preventing death from snake bite" (ref. 30), 331.
38. Report on the effects of artificial respiration, intravenous injection of ammonia and administration of various drugs, etc. in Indian and Australian snake-poisoning; and the physiological, chemical, and microscopical nature of snake-poisons (Calcutta, 1874), pp. i-lxvii.
39. E. Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India (Delhi and Oxford, 1982; first publ. 1959), 311.
40. P. C. Mittra, Life of Colesworthy Grant, founder and late honorary secretary of the Calcutta Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Calcutta, 1881), 20-23.
41. W. O. Stillman, "The prevention of cruelty to animals", Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science in the City of New York, ii (1912), 150-8, p. 150.
42. As quoted in Mittra, Life of Colesworthy Grant (ref. 35), 19.
43. Ibid., 20.
44. To see how stories of dogs in colonial Africa were indeed stories of colonialism, see, R. J. Gordon, "Fido: Dog tales of colonialism in Namibia", in W. Beinart and J. McGregor (eds), Social history of Africa and environment (Oxford, 2003), 240-54.
45. Also see J. S. Palsetia, "Mad dogs and Parsis: The Bombay dog riots of 1832", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, xi (2001), 13-30.
46. J. L. Kipling, Beast and man in India: A popular sketch of Indian animals in their relations with the people (London, 1891), 306-7.
47. In South Africa there were state-sponsored mass killing of "kaffir dogs" owned by the Africans for their hunting to protect the wild life reserves for the state and for European sports. J. Tropp, "Dogs, poison and the meaning of colonial intervention in the Transkei, South Africa", Journal of African history, xliii (2002), 451-72.
48. "Soldier's dogs in India", Civil and military gazette, 20 March 1890, 6.
49. Civil and military gazette, 15 December 1890, 7.
50. "The dog question" from "Anti Rabies", Letters to the Editor, Civil and military gazette, 6 March 1896, 5.
51. "The dog nuisance in Bombay", Civil and military gazette, March 1892, 95.
52. Pioneer mail, 25 February 1892, 7.
53. A. Newnham to the President, Municipal Committee, Municipal Office, Shimla, 5 June 1885, "Destruction of mad dogs in Shimla, 1885-1906", B. no. 3, S. no. 21, A-4, vol. i, pp. 15-16. State Archives, Himachal Pradesh, Prabhat Sadan, Shimla.
54. "Letters to the Pioneer", Pioneer mail, 20 February 1896, 27.
55. W. B. Bannerman, "Report on the treatment of snake-bite with potassium permanganate", Indian journal of medical research, ii (1914-15), 153.
56. "Bill submitted by the Government of Bengal for the prevention of cruelty to animals", 6 February 1869, Home, Public, 170 B, National Archive of India, New Delhi (hereafter NAI).
57. J. Bailkin, "Indian yellow: Making and breaking the imperial palette", Journal of material culture, x (2005), 197-214, p. 206.
58. Mittra, Life of Colesworthy Grant (ref. 35), 23.
59. "A Bill for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals", 21 January 1890, Public and Judicial Departmental Papers, L/PJ/6/270, p. 218, Asia, Pacific and Africa Collections, British Library (hereafter APAC).
60. J. Hotchkiss, "The jungle of Eden: Kipling, wolf boys, and the colonial imagination", Victorian literature and culture, xxix (2001), 435-49, p. 438.
61. Also see Mark Brown, "Race, science and the construction of native criminality in colonial India", Theoretical criminology, v (2001), 345-68.
62. P. Brantlinger, Rule of darkness: British literature and imperialism, 1830-1914 (Ithaca and London, 1990), 199-226.
63. Mittra, Life of Colesworthy Grant (ref. 35), 16-17.
64. David Skuy, "Macaulay and the Indian penal code of 1862: The myth of the inherent superiority and modernity of the English legal system compared to India's legal system in the nineteenth century", Modern Asian studies, xxxii (1998), 513-57.
65. Father of Rudyard Kipling and professor of architectural sculpture in the J. J. School of Art in Bombay.
66. Kipling, Beast and man in India (ref. 40), 1.
67. Ibid., 14-15.
68. Ibid., 152-3.
69. Ibid., 330.
70. Ibid., 330.
71. Also see Hotchkiss, "The jungle of Eden" (ref. 54), 438. The same year, 1890, Rudyard Kipling published a haunting story about a British civilian named Fleete, who in an inebriated state had defiled a Hanuman temple and was nuzzled in the breast by a strange, faceless "silver man". Overnight, Fleete, the cursed man, turned into a "beast", "The mark of the beast", Pioneer mail, 16 July 1890.
72. Kipling, Beast and man in India (ref. 40), 331-2.
73. Ibid., 332.
74. Ibid., 335.
75. Ibid., 336.
76. Lord Dufferin in his final speech in 1888 had stressed the need for British rule in India: "They [the Indians] ought to feel that there is no greater blessing to a country than the existence of an external, dispassionate, immutable, authority, whose watchword is 'Justice,' who alone possesses both the power and will to weld the rights and status of each separate elements of the Empire into a peaceful, co-ordinated, and harmonious unity", File 1978, Article, Times, 3 December 1888, "Latest Intelligence" (from our Correspondents), Lord Dufferin of India, Calcutta, L/PJ/6/241.
77. See e.g., the Editorial, Civil and military gazette, 8 April 1890, 3.
78. 17 March 1892, "Zanzibar: Order bringing into operation the (Indian) Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1890", L/PJ/6/315, File 344, APAC.
79. "The prevention of cruelty to animals", Pioneer mail, 30 March 1893, 16-17.
80. I. Copland, "What to do about cows? Princely versus British approaches to a South Asian dilemma", Bulletin of SOAS, lxviii (2005), 59-76, p. 60.
81. "A Bill for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals", 21 January 1890, Public and Judicial Departmental Papers, L/PJ/6/270, 218, APAC.
82. S. Muthiah, "An old-age home for cattle", The Hindu, 18 August 2003.
83. The Bombay pinjrapole was established in 1834 to prevent the indiscriminate slaughter of dogs by the municipality, D. O. Lodrick, Sacred cows, sacred places: Origins and survivals of animal homes in India (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1981), 157.
84. I. Burton, Prevention of cruelty, and antivivisection (London and Belfast, 1879), 3 [extracted from "A E I. Arabia, Egypt and India"].
85. Letter from Frances Power Cobbe, Dolgelly, Pioneer mail, 25 May 1892, 20-21.
86. Letter from Benjamin Bryan, London, Pioneer mail, 19 October 1893, 24.
87. "Vivisection", The Indian spectator, 6 March 1892, 193.
88. "Memorials from the Antivivisection Society Calcutta, protesting against the establishment of a Pasteur Institute in India", Home, Medical, October 1896, Part B, 104-7, NAI (underline in original).
89. R. Preece, "Darwinism, Christianity, and the great vivisection debate", Journal of the history of ideas, lxiv (2003), 399-419.
90. Quoted ibid., 401.
91. As quoted in Mittra, Life of Colesworthy Grant (ref. 35), 78, 89.
92. Lodrick, Sacred cows, sacred places (ref. 74), 170.
93. The Bengal Pasteur Institute Committee had a fair share of Bengali Hindus, Muslims, Marwaris, Jains and Parsees: the Maharaja of Ajudhia, Chunilal Bose, Chatterton, Sheo Prasad Jhunjunwla, Maharaja of Kuch Bihar, Father Lafont, A. F. M. Abdur Rahman, Babu Lakshmi Narayan Shroff, W. J. Simpson, Jotindra Mohan Tagore, etc., Civil and military gazette, 19 February 1894, 5.
94. Copland, "What to do about cows?" (ref. 72), 62.
95. M. H. Fisher, "Indirect rule in the British Empire: The foundations of the residency system in India (1764-1858)", Modern Asian studies, xviii (1984), 393-428.
96. A few years before the Prince of Dholpur made an offer for establishing a Pasteur Institute, the British Resident had made regular complaints about his mismanagement of funds, once writing quite menacingly: "⋯ I do not think that anything will ever awaken this will o′ the wisp Rana to an adequate consideration of the responsibility of his position or a passably sufficient discharge of his duties as a ruler. Consequently I look on the smash as inevitable." W. J. C. (W. J. Cunningham) to W H C, 18 December 1890, "Arrangements for the Liquidation of the Details of the Dholpur State, and proposals for the Appointment of a Diwan", 1891, Foreign Department, Secret-I, Pros. January 1891, no. 10, p. 3, R/1/1/113, APAC. M. Bhagwan suggests that the adoption of modernity in the case of the Princely State of Baroda was to counter Curzon's interventionist policy, "Demystifying the 'ideal progressive': Resistance through mimicked modernity in princely Baroda, 1900-1913", Modern Asian studies, xxxv (2001), 385-409.
97. B. Ray, Hyderabad and British paramountcy, 1858-1883 (Delhi, 1988).
98. Masson et al., "Edward Lawrie of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission" (ref. 17), 1005.
99. The lancet, 21 June 1890, 234.
100. The lancet, 21 June 1890, 234-5.
101. V. M. Divekar and L. D. Naik, "Evolution of anaesthesia in India", Journal of postgraduate medicine, xlvii (2001), 149-52.
102. "Indian Humanitarian Society", from J. Clayton, Secretary, Humanitarian League, London, to the Editor, Amrita bazar patrika, 27 February 1905, 8.
103. For a detailed account of the Humanitarian League, see D. Weinbren, "Against all cruelty: The Humanitarian League, 1891-1919", History workshop journal, xxxviii (1994), 86-105.
104. The publications of the Humanitarian League in India concentrated essentially on vegetarianism and cow protection, such as, for example, L. Sundara Ram, Cow-protection in India (South Indian Humanitarian League, Madras, 1927);
105. D. H. Jani, Romance of the cow (Bombay Humanitarian League, Bombay, 1938);
106. S. H. Hart, Food and character (Bombay Humanitarian League, Bombay, 1930);
107. B. N. Motiwala and R. S. Gokhale, Rationale of vegetarianism (Bombay Humanitarian League, Bombay, [1919?]);
108. and J. N. Manker, Testimony of scriptures against animal sacrifice (Bombay Humanitarian League, Bombay, 1924).
109. For an elaboration of this point see P. Chakrabarti, Western science in modern India: Metropolitan methods and colonial practices (New Delhi, 2004), 180-248,
110. and A. Nandy, Alternative sciences: Creativity and authenticity in two Indian scientists (Delhi, 1995).
111. Civil and military gazette, 18 January 1890, 5.
112. Lord Marquis to Governor General of India, 17 November 1892, Home Department, Medical, 1893, P/4345, APAC.
113. "A public want in India", by 'Consul', Pioneer mail, 4 February 1892, 21.
114. "A vivisection act for India", Civil and military gazette, 8 July 1893, 2-3.
115. Civil and military gazette, 29 January 1890, 4.
116. From Lawrie to the First Assistant Resident, Hyderabad, 30 October 1895, Home Department, Medical, 1896, P/4963, p. 185, APAC.
117. Note from W. A. C. Roe, Surgeon-Lt-Colonel, Officiating Sanitary Commissioner, Punjab, 27 July 1893, p. 347, Home Department, Medical, August 1894, P/4554, APAC.
118. Surgeon General, Govt of Bombay to Sec. Govt of Bombay, 10 October 1893, ibid., p. 295.
119. "Proposed Legalisation against Vivisection in India", J. M. Campbell to Bombay Govt, 2 September 1893, Home Department, Medical, August 1894, ibid., p. 293.
120. "Minute Recorded by the Honourable Mr Justice Starling on the draft of the Bill to make further provision for the prevention of cruelty to animals", ibid., pp. 294-5.
121. T. D. Beighton to the Chief Sec, Govt of Bengal, 3 October 1893, ibid., p. 313.
122. J. F. Norris to the Chief Sec, Govt of Bengal, 19 January 1894, ibid., p. 319.
123. "An Appeal and a Warning to the People of India", 15 November 1893 [by Society for the Protection for Animals from Vivisection, London], B. Bryan, Secretary, ibid., p. 373.
124. Harrison, "Animals and the state in nineteenth-century England" (ref. 2), 792.
125. "Memorial of the Scottish Society for the Total Suppression of Vivisection praying that the practice of vivisection may not be legalised in India", Scottish Society for the Total Suppression of Vivisection, 37 Lutton Place, Edinburgh, 23 December 1893, P/4554, pp. 371-2, APAC.
126. Willis, "Unmasking immortality" (ref. 9).
127. Civil and military gazette, February 1895, 49-57.
128. Hankin to the Inspector General of Civil Hospitals, NW Provinces and Oudh, 2 September 1893, P/4554, p. 328, APAC.
129. Ibid.,
130. Elgin, G. S. White, A. E. Miller, H. Brackenbury, C. B. Pritchard, J. Westland and A. P. MacDonnell to Secretary of State for India, Simla, 28 August 1894, P/4554, pp. 375-6, APAC.
131. "Vivisection Act for India", H. T Fowler, Sec. of State for India, to Governor General of India in Council, 6 December 1894, Home Department, Medical, 1895, P/4752, p. 95, APAC.
132. Evans's letter, 26 April 1895, ibid., p. 176.
133. Also, Roe to Inspector General of Civil Hospitals in Punjab, 4 March 1893, P/4345, p. 343;
134. Roe to Junior Sec, Govt of Punjab, 29 April 1895, P/4963, p. 185, APAC.
135. Elgin and Council to Hamilton [he became Sec. of State for India in 1895], Calcutta, 25 March 1896, P/4963, pp. 199-200, APAC.
136. "Despatch from the Secretary of State, no. 57 (Revenue), 21 May 1896, P/4693, Part B, pp. 39-40, APAC.
137. For a brilliant account of violence in British social life in India, see J. Bailkin, "The boot and the spleen: When was murder possible in British India?", Comparative studies in society and history, xlviii (2006), 462-93.
138. H. E. M. James to Bombay Govt, 10 August 1893, P/4554, p. 290, APAC.
139. For a study of Royal hunting sprees in the Empire causing moral outrage at home, see A. Taylor, ""Pig-sticking princes': Royal hunting, moral outrage, and the republican opposition to animal abuse in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Britain", History, lxxxix (2004), 30-48.
140. Rangarajan, "The Raj and the natural world" (ref. 12).
141. Also see Annual Reports on the destruction of wild animals, L/PJ/6/459, File 2182; L/PJ/6/2, File 66; L/PJ/6/24, File 1462; L/PJ/6/2, File 66; L/PJ/6/113, File 2255; L/PJ/6/192, File 15; L/PJ/6/334, File 2071; L/PJ/6/430, File 1767; L/PJ/6/362, File 2275; L/PJ/6/430, File 1767; L/PJ/6/648, File 2106; L/PJ/6/636, File 1043; L/PJ/6/682, File 1406; L/PJ/6/723, File 1484; L/PJ/6/893, File 3661, APAC.
142. See for example, "Mortality from snake-bite", Civil and military gazette, 27 June 1890, 3;
143. also Pioneer mail, 17 November 1892, 8.
144. Kipling, Beast and man in India (ref. 40), 252.
145. The camels were not deserted. Most of them died in the long marches through the treacherous terrains of Afghanistan and from lack of food and supplies. Private William Atkinson, who had recently joined the army and went on to the Afghan campaign, witnessed many of these deaths which he described in his diary: 24 march 1879, During the march we had many of our poor baggage camels drop on the road side and die for want of food and sheer exhaustion as the poor animals had been on the continued march for several long days they were completely fatigued and worn out. The camel is a very hardworking animal and will go as long as the poor thing can get one leg before the other, and fall down and die rather than shirk their work⋯. And the camels which had dropped down would remain where it had fallen to be torn to pieces by the wild jackals, and other wild beasts and large birds of prey, who would very soon have the whole of its flesh stripped from their bones and leave their skeleton frame glaring in the trailing sun. These sceneries was [sic] witnessed daily by me and my comrades and most particular round about our camping ground where there was always scores of dead carcasses of camels and bullocks in all stages of mortification. And the stench which arose from the dead carriage of war was something most terrible to mention. We found every encampment in the same way in which I have spoken of ["Journal, completed 1883, of Private William Atkinson, H.M. 67th (South Hampshire) Regiment", Mss Eur D1093, pp. 29-30, APAC].
146. "Typescripts of different versions of articles by Sir Torick Ameer Ali on Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts (1832-1914), John Lockwood Kipling (1837-1911) and the Second Afghan War", Ch (6), Mss Eur C336/10, pp. 16-17, APAC.
147. Colesworthy Grant, Sketches of oriental heads [1838 to 1850], being a series of lithographic portraits drawn from life, intended to illustrate the physiognomic characteristics of the various people and tribes of India (Calcutta, 1850).
148. See "Thugs & Budhuk Dacoits", lithograph by Colesworthy Grant from Sketches of Oriental heads, P2572, Prints & Drawings, British Library.
149. Also see C. Anderson, Legible bodies: Race, criminality and colonialism in South Asia (Oxford, 2004), 26.
150. As shown by Rangarajan, "The Raj and the natural world" (ref. 12), 272.
151. Elgin and his Council to Sec. of State, 17 March 1897, Home Department, Sanitary, Jan to March 1897 (i), P/5188, APAC
152. G. Hamilton to the Governor General in Council, 13 May 1897, ibid.
153. Elgin and his Council to Sec. of State, 17 March 1897, P/5188, pp. 1151-2, APAC.
154. Note by W. S. Morris, 5 May 1903, "Proposed Establishment in Madras Presidency of the Institution for Treatment of Hydrophobia similar to Pasteur Institute at Kasauli", Home-Medical, June 1903, 22-24, Part A, p. 2, NAI.
155. Ibid., p. 3.
156. Ibid.,
157. W. M. Young to Curzon, Kasauli, 26 October 1900, Curzon papers: Correspondence with persons in India, 1900, ii, p. 175, APAC.
158. Note by Risley (6 May1903) "Proposed Establishment in Madras Presidency of the Institution for Treatment of Hydrophobia similar to Pasteur Institute at Kasauli", Home-Medical, June 1903, Part A, pp. 3-4, NAI.
159. Note by Ibbetson (6 May 1903), ibid., p. 4.
160. Note by Lord Curzon (7 May 1903), ibid., p. 4.
161. "Restrictions enforced in India in regard to experiments on living animals", Home, Medical, August 1907, nos. 43-57, NAI.
162. J. T. Leslie to the GOI, 14 June 1907, ibid., p. 4.
163. See, e.g., J. Cunningham, H. C. Brown and K. R. K. Iyengar, "The preparation of vaccines on a large scale", Indian journal of medical research, v (1917-18), 1-18, p. 1;
164. th September 1932, p. ii;
165. th September 1940, 34.
166. "Vivisection in India: The shelving of an important question, a native protest", correspondence between Mr K. J. Tarachand, BA and the Secretary of State for India in Council, September 1911-January 1912, published by the British Antivivisection Society (British Union), for Circulation India (London, [1912]), APAC.
167. Ibid.,
168. Letter, 2 November 1911, India Office, Whitehall, London, APAC.
169. Letter from R. Ritchie, 13 December 1911, ibid.
170. E. M. Tansey, "Protection against dog distemper and dogs protection bills: The Medical Research Council and antivivisectionist protest", Medical history, xxxviii (1994), 1-26, pp. 1-4.
171. It was precisely these laboratories that became sites of animal abuse in India, see the report published by the Animal Defenders International and National Anti-vivisection Society, Animal experimentation in India, unfettered science: How lack of accountability and control has led to animal abuse and poor science (London, 2003).