The boot and the spleen: When was murder possible in British India?

Comparative Studies in Society and History

Volumn 48, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 462-493

  Bailkin, Jordanna ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIZATION; CRIME; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; POLICY MAKING; RACISM; VIOLENCE;

ASIA; EURASIA; EUROPE; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA; UNITED KINGDOM; WESTERN EUROPE;

EID: 33845269586     PISSN: 00104175     EISSN: 14752999     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S001041750600017X     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. Overwhelmingly, these cases involved male-male violence. On European violence against Indian women, see Durba Ghosh, "Household Crimes and Domestic Order: Keeping the Peace in Colonial Calcutta, c.1770-c.1840," Modern Asian Studies 38 (2004): 599-623.
2. Robert Harvey, Report on the Medico-Legal Returns Received from the Civil Surgeons in the Bengal Presidency (Calcutta, 1876).
3. William Hough, A Case Book of European and Native General Courts-Martial Held from the Years 1801 to 1821 (Calcutta, 1821).
4. See George Fenwick's murder trial in Times (London), 27 Dec. 1824
5. and "Case of Captain Andrew Nesbit Riddell" (Board's Collections, F/4/1311/File 52145, India Office Collections, British Library, London), 1832.
6. Richard C. Hula, "Calcutta: The Politics of Crime and Conflict, 1800 to the 1970s," in Ted Robert Gurr et al., eds., The Politics of Crime and Conflict: A Comparative History of Four Cities (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1977), 467-616.
7. Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Philippe Bourgois, eds., Violence in War and Peace (Oxford, 2004), 1.
8. J. S. Cockburn, "Patterns of Violence in English Society: Homicide in Kent 1560-1985," Past and Present 130 (1991): 70-106
9. Adrian Gregory, "Peculiarities of the English? War, Violence and Politics: 1900-1939," Journal of Modern European History 1 (2003): 44-59
10. J. A. Sharpe, "The History of Violence in England: Some Observations," Past and Present 108 (1985): 206-15
11. Lawrence Stone, "Interpersonal Violence in English Society 1300-1980," Past and Present 101 (1983): 22-33
12. and L. Stone, "A Rejoinder," Past and Present 108 (1985): 216-24.
13. See Arthur Kleinman, "The Violences of Everyday Life: The Multiple Forms and Dynamics of Social Violence," in Veena Das et al., eds., Violence and Subjectivity (Berkeley, 2000), 226-41.
14. Hula, "Calcutta," 539, 557.
15. The phrase "right to brutality" is from Diana Paton, No Bond but the Law: Punishment, Race, and Gender in Jamaican State Formation, 1780-1870 (Durham, 2004).
16. V. A. C. Gatrell, "The Decline of Theft and Violence in Victorian and Edwardian England and Wales," in V.A.C. Gatrell et al., eds., Crime and the Law: The Social History of Crime in Western Europe Since 1500 (London, 1980): 238-337
17. Martin Wiener, Reconstructing the Criminal: Culture, Law, and Policy in England, 1830-1914 (Cambridge, 1990)
18. Wiener, "Judges v. Jurors: Courtroom Tensions in Murder Trials and the Law of Criminal Responsibility in Nineteenth-Century England," Law and History Review 17, 3 (1999): 467-505.
19. See also Clive Emsley, Hard Men: The English and Violence since 1750 (London, 2005).
20. Shani D'Cruze, "Unguarded Passions: Violence, History and the Everyday," in S. D'Cruze, ed., Everyday Violence in Britain, 1850-1950 (London, 2000): 1-24.
21. Randall McGowen, "Punishing Violence, Sentencing Crime," in Nancy Armstrong and Leonard Tennenhouse, eds., The Violence of Representation: Literature and the History of Violence (London, 1989): 140-56.
22. Martin Wiener, Men of Blood: Violence, Manliness and Criminal Justice in Victorian England (Cambridge, 2004), 11.
23. Martin Wiener, "Murder and the Modern British Historian," Albion 36 (2003): 1-11
24. and see also Martin Wiener, "Probing the Fault Lines of Imperial Authority: Inter-Racial Homicide Trials in British India," MS, 2005. Notably, although Asians and Africans tried for homicide in Britain were convicted at high rates, they were less likely than whites to be executed for their crimes.
25. Carolyn Conley, "Wars among Savages: Homicide and Ethnicity in the Victorian United Kingdom," Journal of British Studies 44 (Oct. 2005): 775-95.
26. One exception has been scholarship on the history of physical pain. Esther Cohen, "The Animated Pain of the Body," American Historical Review 105, 1 (Feb. 2000): 36-68
27. Elaine Scarry, The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World (Oxford, 1985).
28. Douglas M. Peers, "Privates Off Parade: Regimenting Sexuality in the Nineteenth-Century Indian Empire," International History Review 20, 4 (Dec. 1998): 823-54
29. Anupama Rao, "Problems of Violence, States of Terror: Torture in Colonial India," Interventions 3, 2 (2001): 186-205.
30. James Bryce, The Ancient Roman Empire and the British Empire in India (Humphrey Milford, 1914), 24.
31. James Barnhart, "Violence and the Civilizing Mission: Native Justice in French Colonial Vietnam, 1858-1914," Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1999.
32. Albert Camus, "Reflections on the Guillotine," in Resistance, Rebellion, and Death, Justin O'Brien, trans. (New York, 1960), 131-79
33. Peter Holquist, "State Violence as Technique: The Logic of Violence in Soviet Totalitarianism," in Amir Weiner, ed., Landscaping the Human Garden (Stanford, 2003): 19-45
34. Mark Mazower, "Violence and the State in the Twentieth Century," American Historical Review 107 (Oct. 2002): 1158-78
35. James Sheehan, "What It Means to Be a State: States and Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe," Journal of Modern European History 1 (2003): 11-23.
36. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800 (London, 1997)
37. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1972)
38. Saidiya V. Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1997).
39. Thomas D. Morris, Southern Slavery and the Law, 1619-1860 (Chapel Hill, 1996), 2.
40. Kenneth Cmiel, "The Recent History of Human Rights," American Historical Review 109, 1 (Feb. 2004): 117-35.
41. One exception, although it does not deal with interracial crime, is Graeme Dunstall, "Frontier and/or Cultural Fragment? Interpretations of Violence in Colonial New Zealand," Social History 29 (2004): 59-83.
42. See, for example, "Colonial Genocide," Special Issue of Patterns of Prejudice 39, 2 (2005)
43. G. Jan Colijn, "Carnage Before Our Time: Nineteenth-Century Colonial Genocide," Journal of Genocide Research 5, 4 (2003): 617-25
44. Isabel V. Hull, "Military Culture and the Production of 'Final Solutions' in the Colonies: The Example of Wilhelmine Germany," in Robert Gellately and Ben Kiernan, eds., The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, 2003): 141-62
45. Benjamin Madley, "Patterns of Frontier Genocide 1802-1910: The Aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia," Journal of Genocide Research 6, 2 (2004): 167-92
46. A. Dirk Moses, "An Antipodean Genocide? The Origins of the Genocidal Moment in the Colonization of Australia," Journal of Genocide Research 2, 1 (2000): 89-106
47. Alison Palmer, Colonial Genocide (Adelaide, 2000).
48. Judith Rowbotham, "'Only When Drunk': The Stereotyping of Violence in England, c. 1850-1900," in Shani D'Cruze, ed., Everyday Violence in Britain, 1850-1950 (London, 2000), 155-69.
49. Mark Cocker, Rivers of Blood, Rivers of Gold: Europe's Conflict with Tribal Peoples (London, 1998)
50. Caroline Elkins, Imperial Reckoning: The Untold Story of Britain's Gulag in Kenya (New York, 2005)
51. Palmer, Colonial Genocide.
52. David M. Anderson, "Master and Servant in Colonial Kenya, 1895-1939," Journal of African History 41, 3 (2000): 459-85.
53. Elizabeth Elbourne, "The Sin of the Settler," Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 4 (2003)
54. Mark Finnane and Jonathan Richards, "'You'll Get Nothing Out of It?' The Inquest, Police, and Aboriginal Deaths in Colonial Queensland," Australian Historical Studies 35 (2004): 84-105.
55. David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (New York, 2005)
56. Elkins, Imperial Reckoning.
57. On colonial archives, see Antoinette Burton, Dwelling in the Archive: Women Writing House, Home, and History in Late Colonial India (Oxford, 2003)
58. Nicholas Dirks, "Colonial Histories and Native Informants: Biography of an Archive," in Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, eds., Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament: Perspectives on South Asia (Philadelphia, 1993), 279-313
59. Nicholas Dirks, "The Crimes of Colonialism: Anthropology and the Textualization of India," in Peter Pels and Oscar Salemink, eds., Colonial Subjects: Essays in the Practical History of Anthropology (Ann Arbor, 1999), 153-79
60. Carolyn Hamilton et al., eds., Refiguring the Archive (Dordrecht, 2002).
61. Ram Gopal Sanyal, Record of Criminal Cases as Between Europeans and Natives for the Last Hundred Years (Calcutta, 1896).
62. "Return Showing the Number of Assaults Committed by Europeans on Natives ... in the Five Years 1901-1905" (L/P&J/6/781, File 3445, IOC), 21 July 1904, 10 Dec. 1904, 24 May 1905, and 29 July 1905.
63. Pamela Kanwar, Imperial Simla: The Political Culture of the Raj (Delhi, 1990).
64. Douglas M. Peers, "Torture, the Police, and the Colonial State in the Madras Presidency, 1816-55," Criminal Justice History 12 (1991): 29-56.
65. Times (London), 12 June 1863.
66. "Death of a Native Boy from a Beating on the Dhendai Tea Estate, Assam" (L/P&J/6/731, File 2392, IOC), 20 July 1905.
67. Padma Anagol, "The Emergence of the Female Criminal in India: Infanticide and Survival Under the Raj," History Workshop Journal 53 (2002): 73-93
68. Clare Anderson, Legible Bodies: Race, Criminality and Colonialism in South Asia (Oxford, 2004)
69. Vinay Lal, "Everyday Crime, Native Mendacity, and the Cultural Psychology of Justice in Colonial India," Studies in History 15 (1999): 145-66
70. Satadru Sen, Disciplining Punishment: Colonialism and Convict Society in the Andaman Islands (Oxford, 2000)
71. Radhika Singha, A Despotism of Law: Crime and Justice in Early Colonial India (Delhi, 1998).
72. On white criminals in South Africa, see Jock McCulloch, Black Peril, White Virtue: Sexual Crime in Southern Rhodesia, 1902-1935 (Bloomington, 2000)
73. and Pamela Scully, "Rape, Race, and Colonial Culture: The Sexual Politics of Identity in the Nineteenth-Century Cape Colony, South Africa," American Historical Review 100, 2 (Apr. 1995): 335-59.
74. History of the Changes in the Civil and Criminal Jurisdiction Exercised by the Courts in India over European British Subjects (V/27/140/3, IOC), 1883.
75. David Arnold, "White Colonization and Labour in Nineteenth-Century India," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 11, 2 (1983): 133-58.
76. Elizabeth Kolsky, "Codification and the Rule of Colonial Difference: Criminal Procedure in British India," Law and History Review 23, 3 (2005): 631-706.
77. Sir Courtenay Ilbert, The Government of India (Oxford, 1907)
78. John D. Mayne, The Criminal Law of India (Madras, 1904)
79. Ernest John Trevelyan, The Law Relating to Minors as Administered in the Provinces Subject to the High Courts of British India (London, 1906).
80. A Few Remarks on the Ilbert Bill (Calcutta, 1883), 21.
81. S. S. Vencataramana Aiyar, The Criminal Court Manual (Madras, 1907), 334.
82. Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 1995), ch. 1.
83. "Report of the Indian Law Commission" (V/26/100/12, IOC), 1880.
84. Radhika Singha, "The Privilege of Taking Life: Some 'Anomalies' in the Law of Homicide in the Bengal Presidency," Indian Economic and Social History Review 30, 2 (1993): 181-214.
85. "Resolution of Bombay Government on the Criminal Proceedings Against W. Hewett" (L/P&J/6/103, File 1317, IOC), 17 July 1883.
86. Jörg Fisch, Cheap Lives and Dear Limbs: The British Transformation of the Bengal Criminal Law, 1769-1817 (Wiesbaden, 1983), 57.
87. Singha, "Privilege."
88. Fisch, Cheap Lives.
89. V. B. Raju, Culpable Homicide and Murder (Ahmedabad, 1949), 169.
90. George Claus Rankin, Background to Indian Law (Cambridge, 1946), 211.
91. Aligarh Institute Gazette (INR, L/R/5/53, IOC), 15 Sept. 1876.
92. Bryce, The Ancient Roman Empire, 116-17.
93. Aiyar, Criminal Court Manual, 129.
94. Macdonald, Awakening, 115.
95. See also C. R. Baynes, A Plea for the Madras Judges, Upon the Charges Preferred Against Them, by J. B. Norton, Esq. (Madras, 1853)
96. Major H. Bevan, Thirty Years in India: Or, A Soldier's Reminiscences of Native and European Life in the Presidencies, from 1808 to 1838 (London, 1839)
97. Norman Chevers, A Manual of Medical Jurisprudence for India (Calcutta, 1870), 84-86
98. Greval, Medical Jurisprudence
99. Major Arthur Griffiths, Mysteries of Police and Crime, vol. I (London, 1898)
100. Lieutenant-Colonel P. Hehir and the late J.D.B. Gribble, Outlines of Medical Jurisprudence (Madras, 1908)
101. Earl of Lytton, Pundits and Elephants: Being the Experiences of Five Years as Governor of an Indian Province (London, 1942)
102. J. Ramsay Macdonald, The Awakening of India (London, 1910)
103. John Bruce Norton, The Administration of Justice in Southern India (Madras, 1853)
104. Sir Erskine Perry, A Bird's-Eye View of India (London, 1855).
105. Ilbert, The Ilbert Bill, 32.
106. Mayne, Criminal Law, 559.
107. W. H. Sleeman, Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Official, vol. 2 (London, 1844), 133-34.
108. W. D. Sutherland, "Notes of Medico-Legal Cases," Indian Medical Gazette 37 (1902): 244-46.
109. Greval, Medical Jurisprudence, 22-24.
110. D. G. Crawford, "Notes on Rupture of the Spleen," Indian Medical Gazette 37 (June 1902): 211-21
111. E. G. Russell, Malaria, Its Causes and Effects (Calcutta, 1880).
112. See also Elizabeth Kolsky, "'The Body Evidencing the Crime': Gender, Law, and Medicine in Colonial India," Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University (2002), esp. ch. 5.
113. R. S. Mair, Statistics of Unnatural Deaths in Madras and Other Presidencies and Provinces in India (Madras, 1868), 14.
114. Such cases appeared as plot devices in popular fiction; see Frank Desmond's Fate's Legacy: A Tale of Anglo-Indian Life (London, 1908).
115. William Twining, Observations on Diseases of the Spleen, Particularly on the Vascular Engorgement of that Organ Common in Bengal (Calcutta, 1828).
116. David Arnold, "'An Ancient Race Outworn': Malaria and Race in Colonial India, 1860-1930," in Waltraud Ernst and Bernard Harris, eds., Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960 (London, 1999): 123-43.
117. On racialized perceptions of disease, see also Mark Harrison, Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and British Imperialism in India 1600-1850 (New Delhi, 1999).
118. C. R. James, "Six Cases of Ruptured Spleen," Indian Medical Gazette 37 (1902): 221-24.
119. Alexander Carnegie to Atty (Mss Eur C682, IOC), 4 Apr. 1866.
120. George Barker, A Tea Planter's Life in Assam (Calcutta, 1884).
121. Lord [George Nathaniel] Curzon, "Assaults Committed on a Native Cook named Atu and on a Native Pankah Puller named Bhola by some Men of the Ninth Lancers of Sialkot" (Curzon Papers, Mss Eur F111/402, IOC), 1902.
122. "Death of a Native Boy..."
123. Eric R. Watson, The Principles of Indian Criminal Law: An Introduction to the Study of the Penal Code (London, 1907)
124. J.L.H. Williams, "Tea Plantations, Stanmore Estate" (Mss Eur C796/3, IOC), n.d.
125. Leeds did not acknowledge that such a beating would have been illegal in England after 1860.
126. Times (London), 24 July 1876; 31 July 1876; 28 Aug. 1876; 4 Sept. 1876; 5 Sept. 1876; and 30 Sept. 1876.
127. Ira Klein, "Development and Death: Reinterpreting Malaria, Economics and Ecology in British India," Indian Economic and Social History Review 38, 2 (2001): 147-79.
128. Mofussilite, 3 Mar. 1875.
129. William M. Landes and Richard A. Posner, "Causation in Tort Law: An Economic Approach," Journal of Legal Studies 12 (Jan. 1983): 109-34.
130. Watson, Principles, 73.
131. Sir Cecil Walsh, Crime in India (London, 1930), 30
132. "Case of Henry Wilson, Tried at Poona for Causing the Death of a Syce by a Rash and Negligent Act" (L/P&J/6/525, IOC), 1889
133. "Death of a Burmese Man from a Kick Given to Him by Mr. F. C. Gates" (L/P&J/6/291, File 2193, IOC), 1890.
134. Shishar Kumar Ghose, Indian Sketches (Calcutta, 1898), 125.
135. Deshi Mitra (INR, L/R/5/138, IOC), 17 May 1883.
136. Som Prakash (INR, L/R/5/2, IOC), 5 June 1876.
137. Oudh Punch (INR, L/R/5/61, IOC). 29 Jan. 1884.
138. D. G. Crawford, "Notes on Rupture of the Spleen (Second Series)," Indian Medical Gazette 41 (Mar. 1906), 2.
139. Although European police in India used truncheons in order to control mass protests, these were replaced by lathis as the police force was Indianized. The lathi is still in use as a weapon of crowd control in India and Pakistan. David Arnold, "Armed Police and Colonial Rule in South India, 1914-1947," Modern Asian Studies 11, 1 (1977): 101-25.
140. James, "Six Cases of Ruptured Spleen."
141. On metropolitan judicial responses to domestic violence, see Anna Clark, "Domesticity and the Problem of Wifebeating in Nineteenth-Century Britain," in Shani D'Cruze, ed., Everyday Violence, 27-40
142. A. James Hammerton, Cruelty and Companionship: Conflict in Nineteenth-Century Married Life (London, 1992)
143. Wiener, Men of Blood.
144. "The British Boot," Punch 68 (30 Jan. 1875), 50.
145. Times (London), 19 Aug. 1874; 1 Sept. 1874; 4 Sept. 1874; 15 Sept. 1874; 28 Sept. 1874; 28 Nov. 1874; 25 Dec. 1874; 8 Jan. 1875; 8 Feb. 1875; 11 Feb. 1875; 18 Mar. 1875; 19 June 1875; 10 July 1875; 17 Aug. 1875; 15 Sept. 1875; and 17 Nov. 1875.
146. Times (London). 3 Sept. 1874.
147. Wiener, Men of Blood.
148. "Return (Europeans against Natives)," 2 Apr. 1902.
149. E. M. Collingham, Imperial Bodies: The Physical Experience of the Raj, 1800-1947 (Cambridge, 2001), 109.
150. Mark Harrison, Public Health in British India: Anglo-Indian Preventive Medicine, 1859-1914 (Cambridge, 1994), 63
151. Philippa Levine, Prostitution, Race, and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British Empire (London, 2003), 273.
152. Karnatak Vaibhav (INR, L/R/5/161, IOC), 7 Apr. 1906. British soldiers also committed intra-racial violence, although this attracted less executive attention; European officers often refused to enter the barracks after dark without an escort. "Complaint about Outrageous Behavior by European Officials in Vepery" (Board's Collections, F/4/ 1418, File 56023, IOC), 1833
153. Kenneth Ballhatchett, Race, Sex, and Class under the Raj (London, 1980)
154. Philippa Levine, "Rereading the 1890s: Venereal Disease as Constitutional Crisis in Britain and British India," Journal of Asian Studies 55, 3 (1996): 585-612
155. Douglas M. Peers, Between Mars and Mammon: Colonial Armies and the Garrison State in India (London, 1995).
156. See, for example, Theodore Walrond, ed., Letters and Journals of James, Eighth Earl of Elgin (London, 1873), 414-15.
157. Quoted in David Dilks, Curzon in India, vol. I (New York, 1969), 199.
158. Curzon referred to 151 military cases between 1880 and 1899, which resulted in 77 Indian deaths. Curzon, "The Case of the Ninth Lancers. Communiqué to Press" (Curzon Papers, Mss Eur F111/402, IOC), 20 Nov. 1902.
159. Michael Edwardes, High Noon of Empire: India Under Curzon (London, 1965). 178.
160. David Arnold, "Crime and Crime Control in Madras, 1858-1947," and Sandria Freitag, "Collective Crime and Authority in North India," both in Anand Yang, ed., Crime and Criminality in British India (Tucson, 1985)
161. Sandria Freitag, "Crime in the Social Order of North India," Modern Asian Studies 25, 2 (1991): 227-61
162. Lal, "Everyday Crime"
163. Sen, Disciplining Punishment
164. Peter Stanley, White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India (New York, 1998).
165. Dilks, Curzon in India, 197
166. David Gilmour, Curzon: Imperial Statesman (London, 1994), 194.
167. Purnima Bose, Organizing Empire: Individualism, Collective Agency, and India (Durham, 2003), 59.
168. Earl of Ronaldshay, The Life of Lord Curzon, vol. 2 (London, 1928), 244.
169. Lord Curzon, "Minute by his Excellency the Viceroy on the Revision of the Shooting Pass Rules" (Curzon Papers, Mss Eur F 111/402, IOC, 26 Sept. 1900.
170. "Shooting Affray between Three European Soldiers and Certain Villagers in the Agra District" (L/P&J/6/364, File 2512, IOC), 1893.
171. Wilson to Chief Secretary of Government, Bombay (L/P&J/6/103, File 1317, IOC), 10 May 1883; Samaya (INR, L/R/5/9, IOC), 28 May 1883.
172. Curzon, "Notes," 12.
173. On the use of electricity in cantonments as a solution to soldiers' fatal assaults on punkhacoolies, see Senex, Memoirs of a Magistrate, Or Crime of All Descriptions (Allahabd, 1947), 15.
174. Bryce, The Ancient Roman Empire
175. Charles Grey, European Adventurers of Northern India, 1785-1849 (Lahore, 1929)
176. Herbert Eastwick Compton, A Particular Account of the European Military Adventurers of Hindustan from 1784-1803 (London, 1892).
177. Tirhoot Rhymes. By 'Maori' (Calcutta, 1873), 45-47.
178. Ann Laura Stoler, "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31, 1 (Jan. 1989): 134-201.
179. The second story was retracted as a false charge. Manorama (INR, L/R/5/ 112, IOC), 22 Sept. 1905
180. and in the same volume, Kerala Patrika, 28 Oct. 1905
181. and Nagedannadi, 15 Sept. 1906.
182. S. M. Mitra, Indian Problems (London, 1908), 21.
183. Yugantar (INR, L/R/5/31, IOC), 4 Nov. 1906.
184. Walter Russell Donogh, A Treatise on the Law of Sedition and Cognate Offenses in British India (Calcutta, 1911)
185. Anthony Lester and Geoffrey Bindman, Race and Law (London, 1972), 346-47, n. 7.
186. "Assault on an Indian Tea-Vendor by Four British Soldiers at Upper Barian, Murree Hills" (L/P&J/7/213, File 4674, IOC), 1931-1932.
187. "Shooting of Indians by British Soldiers" (L/P&J/7/419, File 4279, IOC), 1932-1940.
188. Gregory, "Peculiarities of the English?"
189. Jon Lawrence, "Forging a Peaceable Kingdom: War, Violence and Fear of Brutalization in Post-First World War Britain," Journal of Modern History 75 (Sept. 2003): 557-89.
190. Eliga Gould, "Zones of Law, Zones of Violence: The Legal Geography of the British Atlantic, circa 1772," William and Mary Quarterly 60, 3 (2003): 471-510.
191. Report on the Natives of South-West Africa and Their Treatment by Germany (London, 1918)
192. Horst Drechsler, "Let Us Die Fighting": The Struggle of the Herero and Nama against German Imperialism (London, 1980).
193. Derek Sayer, "British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre 1919-1920," Past and Present 131 (May 1991): 130-64.
194. The Indian members of the committee submitted a minority report comparing Dyer's "un-British" actions to German atrocities in France and Belgium.
195. Bose, Organizing Empire.
196. Rai Bahadur Jaising P. Modi, A Textbook of Medical Jurisprudence and Toxicology (Calcutta, 1936)
197. Rames Chandra Ray, Outlines of Medical Jurisprudence (Calcutta, 1925).
198. Ruptured spleens were cited in intra-racial (that is, Indian-Indian) homicide cases through the postcolonial period, but the weapon was almost exclusively the lathi rather than the boot. Keshava Chandra Mehotra, Culpable Homicide and Legal Defence (Lucknow, 1967).
199. Prabhat (INR, L/R/5/98, IOC), Dec. 1925.
200. Veena Das, "The Anthropology of Pain," in Critical Events: An Anthropological Perspective on Contemporary India (Delhi, 1995), 175-96
201. Patricia A. Gossman, Riots and Victims: Violence and the Construction of Communal Identity Among Bengali Muslims, 1905-1947 (Boulder, 1999)
202. Denis Vidal, Violence and Truth: A Rajasthani Kingdom Confronts Colonial Authority (Delhi, 1997).