Hypertension-related cognitive decline: Is the time right for intervention studies?

Minerva Cardioangiologica

Volumn 57, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 813-830

  Birns, J ^a   Morris, R ^b,c   Jarosz, J ^c   Markus, H S ^b,d   Kalra, L ^b,d  

^a ST THOMAS HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^c KING S COLLEGE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^d ST GEORGE'S UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Blood pressure ; Hypertension; Leukoaraiosis

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; NITRENDIPINE; PLACEBO;

BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BLOOD VESSEL DIAMETER; COGNITIVE DEFECT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MINI MENTAL STATE EXAMINATION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; REVIEW; VASCULAR DISEASE; WHITE MATTER;

AGED; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; CHRONIC DISEASE; COGNITION DISORDERS; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; FEASIBILITY STUDIES; FOLLOW-UP STUDIES; GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INTERVENTION STUDIES; INTRACRANIAL ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; LEUKOARAIOSIS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; META-ANALYSIS AS TOPIC; MIDDLE AGED; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 77949575743     PISSN: 00264725     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (103)

1. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood pressure-lowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet 2001;358:1033-41.
2. Friday G, Alter M, Lai SM. Control of hypertension and risk of stroke recurrence. Stroke 2002;33:2652-7.
3. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R; Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality:a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:1903-13.
4. Birns J, Markus H, Kalra L. Blood pressure reduction for vascular risk:is there a price to be paid? Stroke. 2005;36:1308-13.
5. Guo Z, Fratiglioni L, Winblad B, Viitanen M. Blood pressure and performance on the Mini-Mental State Examination in the very old:cross-sectional and longitudinal data from the Kungsholmen Project. Am J Epidemiol 1997;145:1106-13.
6. Liao D, Cooper L, Cai J, Toole JF, Bryan NR, Hutchinson RG, Tyroler HA. Presence and severity of cerebral white matter lesions and hypertension, its treatment, and its control. The ARIC Study. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Stroke 1996;27:2262-70.
7. Swan GE, DeCarli C, Miller BL, Reed T, Wolf PA, Jack LM et al. Association of midlife blood pressure to late-life cognitive decline and brain morphology. Neurology 1998;51:986-93.
8. Dufouil C, de Kersaint-Gilly A, Besancon V, Levy C, Auffray E, Brunnereau L et al. Longitudinal study of blood pressure and white matter hyperintensities:the EVA MRI Cohort. Neurology 2001;56:921-6.
9. de Leeuw FE, de Groot JC, Oudkerk M, Witteman JC, Hofman A, van Gijn J et al. Hypertension and cerebral white matter lesions in a prospective cohort study. Brain 2002;125:765-72.
10. Birns J, Morris R, Donaldson N, Kalra L. The effects of blood pressure reduction on cognitive function:a review of effects based on pooled data from clinical trials. J Hypertens 2006;24:1907-14.
11. Spence JD. Cerebral consequences of hypertension:where do they lead? J Hypertens Suppl 1996;14:S139-45.
12. Skoog I. A review on blood pressure and ischaemic white matter lesions. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 1998;9(Suppl 1):13-9.
13. O'Sullivan M, Morris RG, Huckstep B, Jones DK, Williams SC, Markus HS. Diffusion tensor MRI correlates with executive dysfunction in patients with ischaemic leukoaraiosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004;75:441-7.
14. de la Torre JC, Fortin T. A chronic physiological rat model of Alzheimer's disease. Behavior Brain Res 1994;63:35-40.
15. Birns J, Kalra L. Cognitive function and hypertension. Journal of Human Hypertension 2009;23:86-96.
16. Sparks DL, Scheff SW, Liu H, Landers TM, Coyne CM, Hunsaker JC 3rd. Increased incidence of neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) in non-demented individuals with hypertension. J Neurol Sci 1995;131:162-9.
17. Kalaria RN, Kenny RA, Ballard CG, Perry R, Ince P, Polvikoski T. Towards defining the neuropathological substrates of vascular dementia. J Neurol Sci 2004;226:75-80.
18. O'Brien JT, Erkinjuntii E, Reisberg B, Roman G, Sawada T, Pantoni L et al. Vascular cognitive impairment. Lancet Neurol 2003;2:89-93.
19. Qiu C, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia. Lancet Neurol 2005;4:487-99.
20. Cummings JL. Frontal-subcortical circuits and human behavior. J Psychosom Res. 1998;44:627-8.
21. Shi J, Yang SH, Stubley L, Day AL, Simpkins JW. Hypoperfusion induces overexpression of beta-amyloid precursor protein mRNA in a focal ischemic rodent model. Brain Res 2000;853:1-4.
22. Tanaka M, Fukuyama H, Yamauchi H, Narita M, Nabatame H, Yokode M et al. Regional cerebral blood flow abnormalities in nondemented patients with memory impairment. J Neuroimag 2002;12:112-8.
23. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Hall CB, Kuslansky G, Katz MJ. Low blood pressure and the risk of dementia in very old individuals. Neurology 2003;61:1667-72
24. Lasser NL, Nash J, Lasser VI, Hamill SJ, Batey DM. Effects of antihypertensive therapy on blood pressure control, cognition, and reactivity. A placebo-controlled comparison of prazosin, propranolol, and hydrochlorothiazide. Am J Med 1989;86:98-103.
25. McCorvey E Jr, Wright JT Jr, Culbert JP, McKenney JM, Proctor JD, Annett MP. Effect of hydrochlorothiazide, enalapril, and propranolol on quality of life and cognitive and motor function in hypertensive patients. Clin Pharm 1993;12:300-5.
26. Applegate WB, Presseis S, Wittes J, Luhr J, Shekelle RB, Camel GH et al. Impact of the treatment of isolated systolic hypertension on behavioural variables: results from the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:2154-60.
27. Prince M, Bird AS, Blizard RA, Mann AH. Is the cognitive function of older patients affected by antihypertensive treatment? results from 54 months of the Medical Research Council's trial of hypertension in older adults. Br Med J 1996;312:801-5.
28. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Birkenhager WH, Babarskiene MR et al. Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet 1998;352:1347-51.
29. Denolle T, Sassano P, Allain H, Bentue-Ferrer D, Breton S, Cimarosti I et al. Effects of nicardipine and clonidine on cognitive functions and electroencephalography in hypertensive patients. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2002;16:527-35.
30. Tzourio C, Anderson C, Chapman N, Woodward M, Neal B, MacMahon S et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering with Perindopril and Indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Arch Inter Med 2003;163:1069-75.
31. Lithell H, Hansson L, Skoog I, Elmfeldt D, Hofman A, Olofsson B et al. The Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE):principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial. J Hypertens 2003;21:875-86.
32. Peters R, Beckett N, Forette F, Tuomilehto J, Clarke R, Ritchie C et al. Incident dementia and blood pressure lowering in the Hypertension in the Very Elderly Trial cognitive function assessment (HYVET-COG):a double-blind, placebo controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2008;7:683-9.
33. Dimsdale JE, Newton RP, Joist T. Neuropsychological side-effects of beta blockers. Arch Int Med 1989;149:514-25.
34. Dufouil C, Chalmers C, Coskun O, Besancon V, Bousser M-G, Guillon P et al. Effects of blood pressure lowering on cerebral white matter hyperintensities in patients with stroke. The PROGRESS (Perindopril protection against recurrent stroke study) magnetic resonance imaging substudy. Circulation 2005;112:1644-50.
35. Nakamura K, Oita J, Yamaguchi T. Nocturnal Blood Pressure Dip in Stroke Survivors A Pilot Study. Stroke 1995;26:1373-8.
36. Kario K, Matsuo T, Kobayashi H, Imiya M, Matsuo M, Shimada K. Nocturnal fall of blood pressure and silent cerebrovascular damage in elderly hypertensive patients. Hypertension 1996;27:130-5.
37. Kohara K, Igase M, Yinong J, Fukuoka T, Maguchi M, Okura T et al. Asymptomatic cerebrovascular damages in essential hypertension in the elderly. Am J Hypertens 1997;10:829-35.
38. Kario K, Pickering TG, Matsuo T, Hoshide S, Schwartz JE, Shimada K. Stroke prognosis and abnormal nocturnal blood pressure falls in older hypertensives. Hypertension 2001;38:852-7.
39. Kario K, Eguchi K, Hoshide S, Hoshide Y, Umeda Y, Mitsuhashi T et al. U-curve relationship between orthostatic blood pressure change and silent cerebrovascular disease in elderly hypertensives:orthostatic hypertension as a new cardiovascular risk factor. J A Coll Cardiol 2002;40:133-41.
40. Birns J, Monis R, Jaroaz J, Markus H, Kalra L. The structural and functional consequences of diurnal variations in blood pressure in treated patients with hypertensive cerebrovascular disease. J Hypertension 2009;27:1042-8.
41. Kalra L, Jackson SH, Swift CG. Effect of antihypertensive treatment on psychomotor performance in the elderly. J Hum Hypertens 1993;7:285-90.
42. McManus J, Pathansali R, Stewart R, Macdonald A, Jackson S. Delirium post-stroke. Age Ageing 2007;36:613-8.
43. Schmidt R, Enzinger C, Ropele S, Schmidt H, Fazekas F; Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Progression of cerebral white matter lesions:6-year results of the Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Lancet 2003;361:2046-8.
44. Longstreth WT Jr, Dulberg C, Manolio TA, Lewis MR, Beauchamp NJ Jr, O'Leary D, Carr J, Furberg CD. Incidence, manifestations, and predictors of brain infarcts defined by serial cranial magnetic resonance imaging in the elderly:the Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke 2002;33:2376-82.
45. Birns J, Morris R, Jarosz J, Markus H, Kalra L. Ethinic differences in the cerebrovascular impact of hypertension. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008;25:408-16.
46. Di Bari M, Pahor M, Franse LV, Shorr RI, Wan JY, Ferrucci L et al. Dementia and disability outcomes in large hypertension trials:lessons learned from the systolic hypertension in the elderly program (SHEP) trial. Am J Epidemiol 2001;153:72-8.
47. Parati G, Pomidossi G, Albini F, Malaspina D, Mancia G. Relationship of 24-hour blood pressure mean and variability to severity of target-organ damage in hypertension. J Hypertens 1987;5:93-8.
48. Phillips RA, Diamond JA. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and echocardiography-noninvasive techniques for evaluation of the hypertensive patient. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1999;41:397-440.
49. White WB, Giles T, Bakris GL, Neutel JM, Davidai G, Weber MA. Measuring the efficacy of antihypertensive therapy by ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in the primary care setting. Am Heart J 2006;151:176-84.
50. Fotherby MD, Potter JF. Reproducibility of ambulatory and clinic blood pressure measurements in elderly hypertensive subjects. J Hypertens 1993;11:573-9.
51. Dawson SL, Evans SN, Manktelow BN, Fotherby MD, Robinson TG, Potter JF. Diurnal blood pressure change varies with stroke subtype in the acute phase. Stroke 1998;29:1519-24.
52. Phillips RA, Butkevich A, Sheinart KF, Tuhrim S. Dipping is superior to cusums analysis in assessment of the risk of stroke in a case-control study. Am J Hypertens 2001;14:649-52.
53. Parati G. Assessing circadian blood pressure and heart rate changes:advantages and limitations of different mthods of mathematical modelling. J Hypertens. 2004;22:2061-4
54. Nyström F, Malmström O, Karlberg BE, Ohman KP. Twenty-four hour ambulatory blood pressure in the population. J Intern Med. 1996;240:279-84
55. Watanabe N, Imai Y, Nagai K, Tsuji I, Satoh H, Sakuma M et al. Nocturnal blood pressure and silent cerebrovascular lesions in elderly Japanese. Stroke 1996;27:1319-27.
56. Teicher MH, Barber NI. COSIT: an interactive program for simultaneous multioscillator cosinor analysis of time-series data. Comput Biomed Res 1990;23:283-95.
57. Idema RN, Gelsema ES, Wenting GJ, Grashuis JL, van den Meiracker AH, Brouwer RM et al. A new model for diurnal blood pressure profiling. Square wave fit compared with conventional methods. Hypertension 1992;19:595-605.
58. Stanton A, Cox J, Atkins N, O'Malley K, O'Brien E. Cumulative sums in quantifying circadian blood pressure patterns. Hypertension 1992;19:93-101.
59. Weston PJ, Robinson JE, Watt PA, Thurston H. Reproducibility of the circadian blood pressure fall at night in healthy young volunteers. J Hum Hypertens 1996;10:163-6.
60. Gouw AA, van der Flier WM, Pantoni L, Inzitari D, Erkinjuntti T, Wahlund LO et al. On the etiology of incident brain lacunes:longitudinal observations from the LADIS study. Stroke 2008;39:3083-5.
61. Wahlund LO, Barkhof F, Fazekas F, Bronge L, Augustin M, Sjogren M et al. A new rating scale for age-related white matter changes applicable to MRI and CT. Stroke 2001;32:1318-22.
62. Barkhof F, Scheltens P. Imaging of white matter lesions. Cerebrovascular Diseases. 2002;13(Suppl 2):21-30.
63. Pantoni L, Simoni M, Pracucci G, Schmidt R, Barkhof F, Inzitari D. Visual rating scales for age-related white matter changes (leukoaraiosis):can the heterogeneity be reduced? Stroke 2002;33:2827-33.
64. Koenig SH, Brown RD 3rd, Spiller M, Lundbom N. Relaxometry of brain:why white matter appears bright in MRI. Magnetic Resonance Medicine 1990;14:482-95.
65. Fazekas F, Kleinert R, Offenbacher H, Schmidt R, Kleinert G, Payer F et al. Pathologic correlates of incidental MRI white matter signal hyperintensities. Neurology 1993;43:1683-9.
66. Mäntylä R, Erkinjuntti T, Salonen O, Aronen HJ, Peltonen T, Pohjasvaara T et al. Variable agreement between visual rating scales for white matter hyperintensities on MRI. Comparison of 13 rating scales in a poststroke cohort. Stroke 1997;28:1614-23.
67. van Straaten EC, Fazekas F, Rostrup E, Scheltens P, Schmidt R, Pantoni L et al. Impact of white matter hyperintensities scoring method on correlations with clinical data:the LADIS study. Stroke 2006;37:836-40.
68. Kapeller P, Barber R, Vermeulen RJ, Ader H, Scheltens P, Freidl W et al. Visual rating of age-related white matter changes on magnetic resonance imaging: scale comparison, interrater agreement, and correlations with quantitative measurements. Stroke 2003;34:441-5.
69. DeCarli C, Fletcher E, Ramey V, Harvey D, Jagust WJ. Anatomical mapping of white matter hyperintensities (WMH):exploring the relationships between periventricular WMH, deep WMH, and total WMH burden. Stroke 2005;36:50-5.
70. Birns J, Kalra L. Blood pressure and vascular cognitive impairment:the debate continues. Journal of Human Hypertension 2006;20:1-3.
71. Twamley EW, Ropacki SA, Bondi MW. Neuropsychological and neuroimaging changes in preclinical Alzheimer's disease. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2006;12:707-35.
72. O'Brien JT, Wiseman R, Burton EJ, Barber B, Wesnes K, Saxby B et al. Cognitive associations of subcortical white matter lesions in older people. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002;977:436-44.
73. Libon DJ, Bogdanoff B, Bonavita J, Skalina S, Cloud BS, Resh R et al. Dementia associated with periventricular and deep white matter alterations: a subtype of subcortical dementia. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 1997;12:239-50.
74. Royall DR, Lauterbach EC, Cummings JL, Reeve A, Rummans TA, Kaufer DI et al. Executive control function:a review of its promise and challenges for clinical research. A report from the Committee on Research of the American Neuropsychiatric Association. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;14:377-405.
75. O'Sullivan M, Morris RG, Markus HS. Brief cognitive assessment for patients with cerebral small vessel disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005;76:1140-5.
76. Charlton RA, Barrick TR, McIntyre DJ, Shen Y, O'Sullivan M, Howe FA et al. White matter damage on diffusion tensor imaging correlates with age-related cognitive decline. Neurology 2006;66:217-22.
77. Enzinger C, Fazekas F, Ropele S, Schmidt R. Progression of cerebral white matter lesions - clinical and radiological considerations. J Neurol Sci 2007;257:5-10.
78. Jokinen H, Kalska H, Ylikoski R, Madureira S, Verdelho A, van der Flier WM et al. Longitudinal cognitive decline in subcortical ischemic vascular disease - the LADIS Study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009;27:384-91.
79. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR. Mini Mental State. J Psych Res 1975;12:189-98.
80. Nelson HE. National Adult Reading Test (NART):Test Manual. Windsor: NFER-NELSON; 1982.
81. Lezak MD. Neuropsychological Assessment. 3rd edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995.
82. Gladsjo JA, Schuman CC, Evans JD, Peavy GM, Miller SW, Heaton RK. Norms for letter and category fluency: demographic corrections for age, education, and ethnicity. Assessment 1999;6:142-78.
83. Campbell MJ, Julious SA, Altman DG. Estimating sample sizes for binary, ordered categorical, and continuous outcomes in two group comparisons. BMJ 1995;311:1145-8.
84. Schmidt R, Scheltens P, Erkinjuntti T, Pantoni L, Markus HS, Wallin A et al. White matter lesion progression: a surrogate endpoint for trials in cerebral small-vessel disease. Neurology 2004;63:139-44.
85. van Dijk EJ, Prins ND, Vrooman HA, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM. Progression of cerebral small vessel disease in relation to risk factors and cognitive consequences:Rotterdam Scan study. Stroke 2008;39:2712-9
86. Gouw AA, van der Flier WM, Fazekas F, van Straaten EC, Pantoni L, Poggesi A et al. Progression of white matter hyperintensities and incidence of new lacunes over a 3-year period:the Leukoaraiosis and Disability study. Stroke 2008;39:1414-20.
87. Schmidt R, Ropele S, Enzinger C, Petrovic K, Smith S, Schmidt H et al. White matter lesion progression, brain atrophy, and cognitive decline:The Austrian Stroke Prevention Study. Ann Neurol 2005;58:610-6.
88. Nitkunan A, Barrick TR, Charlton RA, Clark CA, Markus HS. Multimodal MRI in cerebral small vessel disease: its relationship with cognition and sensitivity to change over time. Stroke 2008;39:1999-2005.
89. Peters N, Holtmannspötter M, Opherk C, Gschwendtner A, Herzog J, Sämann P et al. Brain volume changes in CADASIL:a serial MRI study in pure subcortical ischemic vascular disease. Neurology 2006;66:1517-22.
90. Benisty S, Gouw AA, Porcher R, Madureira S, Hernandez K, Poggesi A et al. Location of lacunar infarcts correlates with cognition in a sample of nondisabled subjects with age-related white-matter changes:the LADIS study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009;80:478-83.
91. Werring DJ, Frazer DW, Coward LJ, Losseff NA, Watt H, Cipolotti L et al. Cognitive dysfunction in patients with cerebral microbleeds on T2*-weighted gradient-echo MRI. Brain 2004;127:2265-75.
92. Chabriat H. Diffusion histograms in CADASIL. Stroke 2005;36:2526.
93. Tofts P, Steens S, van Buchem M. MT: magnetization transfer. In: Tofts P, editor. Quantitative MRI of the brain. Measuring changes caused by disease. Chichester:Wiley; 2003. p. 257-98.
94. Fazekas F, Ropele S, Enzinger C, Gorani F, Seewann A, Petrovic K et al. MTI of white matter hyperintensities. Brain 2005;128:2926-32.
95. Sabri O, Ringelstein E-B, Hellwig D, Schneider R, Schreckenberger M, Kaiser H-J et al. Neuropsychological impairment correlates with hypoperfusion and hypometabolism but not with severity of white matter lesions on MRI in patients with cerebral microangiopathy. Stroke 1999;30:556-66.
96. Smith EE, Jonides J. Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science 1999;283:1657-61
97. Pantoni L, del Ser T, Soglian AG, Amigoni S, Spadari G, Binelli D et al. Efficacy and safety of nimodipine in subcortical vascular dementia:a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Stroke 2005;36:619-24.
98. Dichgans M, Markus HS, Salloway S, Verkkoniemi A, Moline M, Wang Q et al. Donepezil in patients with subcortical vascular cognitive impairments randomised double-blind trial in CADASIL. Lancet Neurol 2008;7:310-8.
99. Beltman FW, Heesen WF, Smit AJ, May JF, Lie KI, Meyboom-de Jong B. Acceptance and side effects of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring:evaluation of a new technology. J Hum Hypertens 1996;10(Suppl):S39-42.
100. Melendez JC, McCrank E. Anxiety-related reactions associated with magnetic resonance imaging examinations. JAMA 1993;270:745-7.
101. Hollenhorst J, Munte S, Friedrich L, Heine J, Leuwer M, Becker H, Piepenbrock S. Using intranasal midazolam spray to prevent claustrophobia induced by MR imaging. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001;176:865-8.
102. Roman GC, Erkinjuntti T, Wallin A, Pantoni L, Chui HC. Subcortical ischaemic vascular dementia. Lancet Neurol 2002;1:426-36.
103. 103- Hill MD, Mitchell JR. White matter lesions and cognition:it's time for randomized trials to preserve intelligence. Neurology 2006;66:470-1.