Tumor necrosis factor blockade and the risk of viral infection

Nature Reviews Rheumatology

Volumn 6, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 165-174

  Kim, Seo Young ^a   Solomon, Daniel H ^a  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADALIMUMAB; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; BUCILLAMINE; COTRIMOXAZOLE; CYCLOSPORIN A; DISEASE MODIFYING ANTIRHEUMATIC DRUG; ETANERCEPT; ETHAMBUTOL; ETRETIN; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INFLIXIMAB; ISONIAZID; MERCAPTOPURINE; MESALAZINE; METHOTREXATE; MINOCYCLINE; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; PYRAZINAMIDE; PYRIDOXINE; RIFAMPICIN; SALAZOSULFAPYRIDINE; STEROID; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR INHIBITOR; UNINDEXED DRUG; VARICELLA ZOSTER VACCINE; WART VIRUS VACCINE;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ACUTE DISEASE; ADENOVIRUS INFECTION; ANEMIA; B CELL LYMPHOMA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CHRONIC INFLAMMATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COLITIS; COLON DISEASE; CONDYLOMA ACUMINATUM; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR CLOTTING; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG FEVER; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG INHIBITION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; FATIGUE; HEMOPHAGOCYTIC SYNDROME; HERPES ZOSTER; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; ILEITIS; INFECTION; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS; JC VIRUS; JUVENILE RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; KAPOSI SARCOMA; LIVER FUNCTION TEST; LUNG INFECTION; LYMPHADENOPATHY; LYMPHOCYTOSIS; LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASE; MALAISE; MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; OTITIS MEDIA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHARYNGITIS; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; PROTEIN DEPLETION; PROTEIN FUNCTION; RECURRENT DISEASE; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; RETINITIS; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; RNA VIRUS INFECTION; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN INFECTION; TOXIC HEPATITIS; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR BLOCKADE; VACCINATION; VERRUCA VULGARIS; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS PNEUMONIA; VIRUS REACTIVATION; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL; ANTIRHEUMATIC AGENTS; ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; HUMANS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA; VIRUS ACTIVATION; VIRUS DISEASES;

EID: 77949262985     PISSN: 17594790     EISSN: 17594804     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrrheum.2009.279     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Kollias, G., Douni, E., Kassiotis, G. & Kontoyiannis, D. The function of tumour necrosis factor and receptors in models of multi-organ inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis and inflammatory bowel disease. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 58, 132-139 (1999).
2. Furst, D. The risk of infections with biologic therapies for rheumatoid arthritis. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. [doi:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2008.10.002] .
3. Crawford, M. & Curtis, J. Tumor necrosis factor inhibitors and infection complications. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 10, 383-389 (2008).
4. Dixon, W. et al. Rates of serious infection, including site-specific and bacterial intracellular infection, in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy: results from the British Society for Rheumatology Biologics Register. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 2368-2376 (2006).
5. Wolfe, F., Caplan, L. & Michaud, K. Treatment for rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of hospitalization for pneumonia: associations with prednisone, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, and anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 54, 628-634 (2006).
6. Schneeweiss, S. et al. Anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha therapy and the risk of serious bacterial infections in elderly patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 56, 1754-1764 (2007).
7. Bongartz, T. et al. Anti-TNF antibody therapy in rheumatoid arthritis and the risk of serious infections and malignancies: systematic review and meta-analysis of rare harmful effects in randomized controlled trials. JAMA 295, 2275-2285 (2006).
8. Guidotti, L. & Chisari, F. Noncytolytic control of viral infections by the innate and adaptive immune response. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 19 65-91 (2001).
9. Herbein, G. & Khan, K. Is HIV infection a TNF receptor signalling-driven disease? Trends Immunol. 29, 61-67 (2008).
10. Carroll, M. & Bond, M. Use of tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 38, 208-217 (2008).
11. Domm, S., Cinatl, J. & Mrowietz, U. The impact of treatment with tumour necrosis factor-alpha antagonists on the course of chronic viral infections: a review of the literature. Br. J. Dermatol. 159, 1217-1228 (2008).
12. Bazzoni, F. & Beutler, B. The tumor necrosis factor ligand and receptor families. N. Engl. J. Med. 334, 1717-1725 (1996).
13. Aukrust, P. et al. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) system levels in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients during highly active antiretroviral therapy: persistent TNF activation is associated with virologic and immunologic treatment failure. J. Infect. Dis. 179, 74-82 (1999).
14. de Oliveira Pinto, L., Garcia, S., Lecoeur, H., Rapp, C. & Gougeon, M. Increased sensitivity of T lymphocytes to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1)- and TNFR2-mediated apoptosis in HIV infection: relation to expression of Bcl-2 and active caspase-8 and caspase-3. Blood 99, 1666-1675 (2002).
15. Krammer, P. CD95's deadly mission in the immune system. Nature 407, 789-795 (2000).
16. Badley, A. et al. Macrophage-dependent apoptosis of CD4+ T lymphocytes from HIV-infected individuals is mediated by FasL and tumor necrosis factor. Exp. Med. 185, 55-64 (1997).
17. Aggarwal, B. Signalling pathways of the TNF superfamily: a double-edged sword. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 3, 745-756 (2003).
18. Bedini, J. et al. Serum levels of beta2-microglobulin, neopterin, TNF-alpha and soluble receptors of TNF-alpha and interleukin-2 in intravenous drug abusers according to HIV-1 status and stage of the HIV-1 infection. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 4, 4-10 (1998).
19. Poli, G. et al. Transforming growth factor beta suppresses human immunodeficiency virus expression and replication in infected cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage. Exp. Med. 173, 589-597 (1991).
20. Walker, R. et al. Inhibition of immunoreactive tumor necrosis factor-alpha by a chimeric antibody in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Infect. Dis. 174, 63-68 (1996).
21. Aboulafia, D., Bundow, D., Wilske, K. & Ochs, U. Etanercept for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-associated psoriatic arthritis. Mayo Clin. Proc. 75, 1093-1098 (2000).
22. Bartke, U. et al. Human immunodeficiency virusassociated psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis treated with infliximab. Br. J. Dermatol. 150, 784-786 (2004).
23. Gaylis, N. Infliximab in the treatment of an HIV positive patient with Reiter's syndrome. J. Rheumatol. 30, 407-411 (2003).
24. Beltran, B. et al. Safe and effective application of anti-TNF-alpha in a patient infected with HIV and concomitant Crohn's disease. Gut 55, 1670-1671 (2006).
25. Filippi, J. et al. Infliximab and human immunodeficiency virus infection: Viral load reduction and CD4+ T-cell loss related to apoptosis. Arch. Intern. Med. 166, 1783-1784 (2006).
26. Wallis, R. S. et al. A study of the safety, immunology, virology, and microbiology of adjunctive etanercept in HIV-1-associated tuberculosis. AIDS 18, 257-264 (2004).
27. Kaur, P. P., Chan, V. C. & Berney, S. N. Successful etanercept use in an HIV-positive patient with rheumatoid arthritis. J. Clin. Rheumatol. 13, 79-80 (2007).
28. Linardaki, G. K., Katsarou, O., Ioannidou, P., Karafoulidou, A. & Boki, K. Effective etanercept treatment for psoriatic arthritis complicating concomitant human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus infection. J. Rheumatol. 34, 1353-1355 (2007).
29. Sellam, J. et al. Use of infliximab to treat psoriatic arthritis in HIV-positive patients. Joint Bone Spine 74, 197-200 (2007).
30. Cepeda, E., Williams, F., Ishimori, M., Weisman, M. & Reveille, J. The use of antitumour necrosis factor therapy in HIV-positive individuals with rheumatic disease. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 67, 710-712 (2008).
31. Mikhail, M., Weinberg, J. M. & Smith, B. L. Successful treatment with etanercept of von Zumbusch pustular psoriasis in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus. Arch. Dermatol. 144, 453-456 (2008).
32. Shahbazian, H. & Ehsanpour, A. An outbreak of chickenpox in adult renal transplant recipients. Exp. Clin. Transplant. 5, 604-606 (2007).
33. Dworkin, R. & Schmader, K. Epidemiology and natural history of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia (eds Watson, C. & Gershon, A.) (Elsevier Press, New York, 2001).
34. Schmader, K., Gnann, J. J. & Watson, C. The epidemiological, clinical, and pathological rationale for the herpes zoster vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 197, S207-S215 (2008).
35. Sampathkumar, P., Drage, L. & Martin, D. Herpes zoster (shingles) and postherpetic neuralgia. Mayo Clin. Proc. 84, 274-280 (2009).
36. Tan, H. & Goh, C. Viral infections affecting the skin in organ transplant recipients: epidemiology and current management strategies. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 7, 13-29 (2006).
37. Smitten, A. L. et al. The risk of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis in the United States and the United Kingdom. Arthritis Rheum. 57, 1431-1438 (2007).
38. Lee, P. P. W., Lee, T.-L., Ho, M. H.-K., Wong, W. H. S. & Lau, Y.-L. Herpes zoster in juvenile-onset systemic lupus erythematosus: incidence, clinical characteristics and risk factors. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 25, 728-732 (2006).
39. Ishikawa, O., Abe, M. & Miyachi, Y. Herpes zoster in Japanese patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 24, 327-328 (1999).
40. Wolfe, F., Michaud, K. & Chakravarty, E. Rates and predictors of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and non-inflammatory musculoskeletal disorders. Rheumatology (Oxford) 45, 1370-1375 (2006).
41. Strangfeld, A. et al. Risk of herpes zoster in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with anti-TNF-alpha agents. JAMA 301, 737-744 (2009).
42. Baumgart, D. & Dignass, A. Shingles following infliximab infusion. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 61, 661 (2002).
43. Kinder, A., Stephens, S., Mortimer, N. & Sheldon, P. Severe herpes zoster after infliximab infusion. Postgrad. Med. J. 80, 26 (2004).
44. Lee, H. H. et al. Cutaneous side-effects in patients with rheumatic diseases during application of tumour necrosis factor-alpha antagonists. British J. Dermatol. 156, 486-491 (2007).
45. Leung, V. S., Nguyen, M. T. & Bush, T. M. Disseminated primary varicella after initiation of infliximab for Crohn's disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 99, 2503-2504 (2004).
46. Balato, N., Gaudiello, F., Balato, A. & Ayala, F. Development of primary varicella infection during infliximab treatment for psoriasis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 60, 709-710 (2009).
47. Becart, S. & Segaert, S. Recurrent varicella in an adult psoriasis patient treated with etanercept. Dermatology 217, 260-261 (2008).
48. Choi, H.-J., Kim, M.-Y., Kim, H. O. & Park, Y. M. An atypical varicella exanthem associated with the use of infliximab. Int. J. Dermatol. 45, 999-1000 (2006).
49. Seiderer, J., Goke, B. & Ochsenkuhn, T. Safety aspects of infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease patients. A retrospective cohort study in 100 patients of a German University Hospital. Digestion 70, 3-9 (2004).
50. Vonkeman, H., ten Napel, C., Rasker, H. & van de Laar, M. Disseminated primary varicella infection during infliximab treatment. J. Rheumatol. 31, 2517-2518 (2004).
51. Wendling, D., Streit, G., Toussirot, E. & Prati, C. Herpes zoster in patients taking TNFalpha antagonists for chronic inflammatory joint disease. Joint Bone Spine 75, 540-543 (2008).
52. Tresch, S., Trüeb, R., Kamarachev, J., French, L. & Hofbauer, G. Disseminated herpes zoster mimicking rheumatoid vasculitis in a rheumatoid arthritis patient on etanercept. Dermatology 219, 347-349 (2009).
53. Greenberg, J. et al. Association of methotrexate and TNF antagonists with risk of infection outcomes including opportunistic infections in the CORRONA registry. Ann. Rheum. Dis. [doi:10.1136/ard.2008.089276].
54. McDonald, J. et al. Herpes zoster risk factors in a national cohort of veterans with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 48, 1364-1371 (2009).
55. Lee, D., Kim, H., Song, Y. & Cho, K. Development of varicella during adalimumab therapy. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 21, 687-688 (2007).
56. Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention. Epstein-Barr virus and infectious mononucleosis http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv.htm (2006).
57. Toussirot, E. & Roudier, J. Epstein-Barr virus in autoimmune diseases. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Rheumatol. 22, 883-896 (2008).
58. Alspaugh, M., Henle, G., Lennette, E. & Henle, W. Elevated levels of antibodies to Epstein-Barr virus antigens in sera and synovial fluids of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J. Clin. Invest. 67, 1134-1140 (1981).
59. Balandraud, N. et al. Long-term treatment with methotrexate or tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitors does not increase Epstein-Barr virus load in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 57, 762-767 (2007).
60. Sari, I. et al. Atypical infectious mononucleosis in a patient receiving tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitory treatment. Rheumatol. Int. 29, 825-826 (2009).
61. Park, S., Kim, C., Kim, J. & Choe, J. Spontaneous regression of EBV-associated diffuse lymphoproliferative disease in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis after discontinuation of etanercept treatment. Rheumatol. Int. 28, 475-477 (2008).
62. Komatsuda, A., Wakui, H., Nimura, T. & Sawada, K. Reversible infliximab-related lymphoproliferative disorder associated with Epstein-Barr virus in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Mod. Rheumatol. 18, 315-318 (2008).
63. Losco, A. et al. Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoma in Crohn's disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 10, 425-429 (2004).
64. Mocarski, E. & Courcelle, C. in Fields's virology (eds Knipe, D. & Howley, P.) (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 2001).
65. Haerter, G. et al. Cytomegalovirus retinitis in a patient treated with anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha antibody therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, e88-e94 (2004).
66. Petersen, B. & Lorentzen, H. Cytomegalovirus complicating biological immunosuppressive therapy in two patients with psoriasis receiving treatment with etanercept or efalizumab. Acta Derm. Venereol. 88, 523-524 (2008).
67. Pontikaki, I. et al. Side effects of anti-TNFalpha therapy in juvenile idiopathic arthritis [Italian]. Reumatismo 58, 31-38 (2006).
68. Sari, I. et al. Cytomegalovirus colitis in a patient with Behcet's disease receiving tumor necrosis factor alpha inhibitory treatment. World J. Gastroenterol. 14, 2912-2914 (2008).
69. Chang, Y. et al. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science 266, 1865-1869 (1994).
70. Moore, P. & Chang, Y. Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), KS-associated herpesvirus, and the criteria for causality in the age of molecular biology. Am. J. Epidemiol. 147, 217-221 (1998).
71. Antman, K. & Chang, Y. Kaposi's sarcoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 1027-1038 (2000).
72. Casoli, P. & Tumiati, B. Rheumatoid arthritis, corticosteroid therapy and Kaposi's sarcoma: a coincidence? A case and review of literature. Clin. Rheumatol. 11, 432-435 (1992).
73. Louthrenoo, W., Kasitanon, N., Mahanuphab, P., Bhoopat, L. & Thongprasert, S. Kaposi's sarcoma in rheumatic diseases. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 32, 326-333 (2003).
74. Kuttikat, A., Joshi, A., Saeed, I. & Chakravarty, K. Kaposi sarcoma in a patient with giant cell arteritis. Dermatol. Online J. 12, 16 (2006).
75. Soria, C. et al. Kaposi's sarcoma in a patient with temporal arteritis treated with corticosteroid. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 24, 1027-1028 (1991).
76. Cohen, C. D., Horster, S., Sander, C. A. & Bogner, J. R. Kaposi's sarcoma associated with tumour necrosis factor alpha neutralising therapy. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 62, 684 (2003).
77. Lavagna, A. et al. Infliximab and the risk of latent viruses reactivation in active Crohn's disease. Inflamm. Bowel Dis. 13, 896-902 (2007).
78. Markowitz, L. et al. Quadrivalent human papillomavirus vaccine: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm. Rep. 56, 1-24 (2007).
79. Handisurya, A., Schellenbacher, C. & Kirnbauer, R. Diseases caused by human papillomaviruses (HPV). J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 7, 453-466 (2009).
80. Einstein, M. et al. Clinician's guide to human papillomavirus immunology: knowns and unknowns. Lancet Infect. Dis. 9, 347-356 (2009).
81. Strickler, H. et al. Natural history and possible reactivation of human papillomavirus in human immunodeficiency virus-positive women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 97, 577-586 (2005).
82. Garcia-Pineres, A. et al. Persistent human papillomavirus infection is associated with a generalized decrease in immune responsiveness in older women. Cancer Res. 66, 11070-11076 (2006).
83. Savani, B. et al. Increased risk of cervical dysplasia in long-term survivors of allogeneic stem cell transplantation - Implications for screening and HPV vaccination. Biol. Blood Marrow Transplant. 14, 1072-1075 (2008).
84. Veroux, M. et al. Surveillance of human papilloma virus infection and cervical cancer in kidney transplant recipients: preliminary data. Transplant. Proc. 41, 1191-1194 (2009).
85. Malouf, M. A. et al. Sexual health issues after lung transplantation: importance of cervical screening. J. Heart Lung Transplant. 23, 894-897 (2004).
86. Porreco, R., Penn, I., Droegemueller, W., Greer, B. & Makowski, E. Gynecologic malignancies in immunosuppressed organ homograft recipients. Obstet. Gynecol. 45, 359-364 (1975).
87. Kane, S., Khatibi, B. & Reddy, D. Higher incidence of abnormal Pap. smears in women with inflammatory bowel disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103, 631-636 (2008).
88. Somasekar, A. & Alcolado, R. Genital condylomata in a patient receiving infliximab for Crohn's disease. Postgrad. Med. J. 80, 358-359 (2004).
89. Cursiefen, C. et al. Multiple bilateral eyelid molluscum contagiosum lesions associated with TNFalpha-antibody and methotrexate therapy. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 134, 270-271 (2002).
90. Antoniou, C., Kosmadaki, M. G., Stratigos, A. J. & Katsambas, A. D. Genital HPV lesions and molluscum contagiosum occurring in patients receiving anti-TNF-alpha therapy. Dermatology 216, 364-365 (2008).
91. Adams, D. R., Zaenglein, A. L. & Hershey, M. S. Etanercept and warts. J. Drugs Dermatol. 3, 601 (2004).
92. Gur, I. The epidemiology of Molluscum contagiosum in HIV-seropositive patients: a unique entity or insignificant finding? Int. J. STD AIDS 19, 503-506 (2008).
93. Weber, T. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurol. Clin. 26, 833-854 (2008).
94. Padgett, B., Walker, D., ZuRhein, G., Eckroade, R. & Dessel, B. Cultivation of papova-like virus from human brain with progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. Lancet 1, 1257-1260 (1971).
95. TYSABRI Update. Biogen Idec [online], http://investor.biogenidec. com/phoenix.zhtml?c=148682&p=irol-TPME (2009).
96. Van Assche, G. V. R. M. et al. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy after natalizumab therapy for Crohn's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 362-368 (2005).
97. Calabrese, L. & Molloy, E. Progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in the rheumatic diseases: assessing the risks of biological immunosuppressive therapies. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 67 (Suppl. 3), iii64-iii65 (2008).
98. Sterry, W. et al. Immunosuppressive therapy in dermatology and PML. JDDG 7, 5 (2009).
99. Boren, E. J., Cheema, G. S., Naguwa, S. M., Ansari, A. A. & Gershwin, M. The emergence of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in rheumatic diseases. J. Autoimmun. 30, 90-98 (2008).
100. Bonavita, S. et al. Infratentorial progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in a patient treated with fludarabine and rituximab. Neurol. Sci. 29, 37-39 (2008).
101. Fidder, H. et al. Long-term safety of infliximab for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: a single-centre cohort study. Gut 58, 501-508 (2009).
102. Yamamoto, M. et al. Leukoencephalopathy during administration of etanercept for refractory rheumatoid arthritis. Mod. Rheumatol. 17, 72-74 (2007).
103. Koralnik, I., Boden, D., Mai, V., Lord, C. & Letvin, N. JC virus DNA load in patients with and without progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Neurology 52, 253-260 (1999).
104. Weber, T. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis for the diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus-related neurologic diseases. Semin. Neurol. 19, 223-233 (1999).
105. Mohan, N. et al. Demyelination occurring during anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha therapy for inflammatory arthritides. Arthritis Rheum. 44, 2862-2869 (2001).
106. Jarand, J., Zochodne, D., Martin, L. & Voll, C. Neurological complications of infliximab. J. Rheumatol. 33, 1018-1020 (2006).
107. Smith, D. & Letendre, S. Viral pneumonia as a serious complication of etanercept therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 136, 174 (2002).
108. Ahmad, N. M., Ahmad, K. M. & Younus, F. Severe adenovirus pneumonia (AVP) following infliximab infusion for the treatment of Crohn's disease. J. Infect. 54, e29-e32 (2007).
109. Kang, M.-J. et al. Adenoviral pneumonia during etanercept treatment in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis. Korean J. Intern. Med. 22, 63-66 (2007).
110. Saag, K. et al. American College of Rheumatology 2008 recommendations for the use of nonbiologic and biologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 59, 762-784 (2008).
111. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP): Use of vaccines and immune globulins in persons with altered immunocompetence. MMWR 42, 1-18 (1993).
112. Harpaz, R., Ortega-Sanchez, I. & Seward, J. Prevention of herpes zoster: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. MMWR 57, 1-30 (2008).
113. Cush, J., Calabrese, L. & Kavanaugh, A. Herpes zoster (shingles) vaccine guidelines for immunosuppressed patients. American College of Rheumatology Hotline http://www.rheumatology.org/publications/hotline/2008- 08-01-shingles.asp (2008).
114. Muñoz, N. et al. Safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of quadrivalent human papillomavirus (types 6, 11, 16, 18) recombinant vaccine in women aged 24-45 years: a randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet 373, 1949-1957 (2009).
115. Kahn, J. HPV vaccination for the prevention of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. N. Engl. J. Med. 361, 271-278 (2009).
116. Avery, R. & Michaels, M. Update on immunizations in solid organ transplant recipients: what clinicians need to know. Am. J. Transplant. 8, 9-14 (2007).
117. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Recommended adult immunization schedule-United States, 2009. MMWR 57, Q1-Q4 (2009).
118. Elkayam, O. et al. The effect of infliximab and timing of vaccination on the humoral response to influenza vaccination in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. [doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2008.12.002].
119. Brezinschek, H.-P., Hofstaetter, T., Leeb, B. F., Haindl, P. & Graninger, W. B. Immunization of patients with rheumatoid arthritis with antitumor necrosis factor alpha therapy and methotrexate. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 20, 295-299 (2008).
120. Papadakis, K. et al. Outcome of cytomegalovirus infections in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96, 2137-2142 (2001).
121. Helbling, D., Breitbach, T. H. & Krause, M. Disseminated cytomegalovirus infection in Crohn's disease following anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 14, 1393-1395 (2002).
122. Actis, G., Bruno, M., Pinna-Pintor, M., Rossini, F. & Rizzetto, M. Infliximab for treatment of steroid-refractory ulcerative colitis. Digest. Liver Dis. 34, 631-634 (2002).
123. Mizuta, M. & Schuster, M. Cytomegalovirus hepatitis associated with use of anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40, 1071-1072 (2005).
124. Kohara, M. M. & Blum, R. N. Cytomegalovirus ileitis and hemophagocytic syndrome associated with use of anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody. Clin. Infect. Dis. 42, 733-734 (2006).
125. D'Ovidio, V. et al. Cytomegalovirus infection in inflammatory bowel disease patients undergoing anti-TNFalpha therapy. J. Clin. Virol. 43, 180-183 (2008).
126. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccines and Immunization. www.cdc.gov/vaccines/recs/schedules/default.htm (2009).