Exploring the predisposition of travellers to qualify as ecotourists: The ecotourist predisposition scale

Journal of Ecotourism

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 45-61

  Nowaczek, Agnes ^a   Smale, Bryan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Ecotourist; Ecotourist Predisposition Scale; Predisposition; Reliability; Validity

Indexed keywords

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; ECOTOURISM; ETHICS; INTEGRATED APPROACH; TOURIST BEHAVIOR; TRAVEL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 77649310736     PISSN: 14724049     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14724040902883521     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Ahmed, Z. U., Krohn, F. B., & Heller, V. L. (1994). International tourism ethics as a way to world understanding. The Journal of Tourism Studies, 5 (2), 36-44.
2. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes, 50 (2), 179-211.
3. Allcock, A., Jones, B., Lane, S., & Grant, J. (1994). National ecotourism strategy. Canberra, Australia: Commonwealth Department of Tourism, Australian Government Publishing Service.
4. Bales, R., & Couch, A. (1969). Value profile. Sociological Inquiry, 39 (1), 3-17.
5. Ballantine, J. L., & Eagles, P. F. (1994). Defining Canadian ecotourists. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2 (4), 210-214.
6. Blarney, R. K. (1995). The nature of ecotourism. Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Tourism Research.
7. Blarney, R. K. (1997). Ecotourism: The search for an operational definition. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5 (2), 109-130.
8. Blarney, R. K. (2001). Principles of ecotourism. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 5-22). New York: CABI.
9. Blarney, R. K., & Braithwaite, V. A. (1997). A social values segmentation of the potential ecotourism market. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5 (1), 29-45.
10. Blarney, R., & Hatch, D. (1998). Profiles and motivations of nature-based tourists visiting Australia (Occasional Paper No. 25). Canberra, Australia: Bureau of Tourism Research.
11. Boeger, E. (1991). Ecotourism/the environment: Or the immense potential and importance of ecotourism. Travel and Tourism Research Association Newsletter, 12 (3), 2, 5, 6.
12. Boo, E. (1991). Making ecotourism sustainable: Recommendations for planning, development, and management. In T. Whelan (Ed.), Nature tourism: Managing for the environment (pp. 187-199). Washington, DC: Island Press.
13. Brandon, K. (1996). Ecotourism and conservation: A review of key issues (Environment Department Paper No. 23). Washington, DC: The World Bank.
14. Brinberg, D., & McGrath, J. E. (1982). Network of validity concepts within the research process. In D. Brinberg & L. Kidder (Eds.), New directions for methodology of social and behavioral science: Forms of validity in research (pp. 5-22). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
15. Buckley, R. (1994). A framework for ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 21 (4), 661-669.
16. Butcher, J. (2003). The moralisation of tourism: Sun, sand... and saving the world? London: Routledge.
17. Calder, B. J., Phillips, L. W., & Tybout, A. M. (1982). The concept of external validity. Journal of Consumer Research, 9 (3), 240-244.
18. Canadian Environmental Advisory Council. (1992). Ecotourism in Canada. Ottawa, ON: Minister of Supply and Services.
19. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1988). The future of ecotourism. Mexico Journal, 1 (17), 13-14.
20. Chadwick, D. H. (1995). Safari to Botswana. National Geographic Traveler, 12 (6), 82-93.
21. Chapman, D. M. (1995). Ecotourism in State Forests of New South Wales: Who visits and why? Sydney, Australia: State Forests of New South Wales and the University of Sydney.
22. Churchill, G. A., & Iacobucci, D. (2002). Marketing research: Methodological foundations (8th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Press.
23. Commonwealth Department of Tourism. (1994). National ecotourism strategy. Sydney, Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service.
24. DeVellis, R. F. (2003). Scale development: Theory and applications (2nd ed., Vol. 26), Applied Social Research Methods Series, London: Sage Publications.
25. Diamantis, D. (1999). The characteristics of UK's ecotourists. Tourism Recreation Research, 24 (2), 99-102.
26. Donohoe, H. M., & Needham, R. D. (2006). Ecotourism: The evolving contemporary definition. Journal of Ecotourism, 5 (3), 192-210.
27. Dunlap, R. E., Grieneeks, J. K., & Rokeach, M. (1983). Human values and pro-environmental behaviour. In W. D. Conn (Ed.), Energy and material resources: Attitudes, values and public policy (pp. 145-168). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
28. Dunlap, R. E., Van Liere, K. D., Mertig, A. G., & Jones, R. E. (2000). Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: A revised NEP scale. Journal of Social Issues, 56 (3), 425-442.
29. Eagles, P. (1995). Understanding the market for sustainable tourism. In S. F. McCool & A. E. Watson (Eds.), Linking tourism, the environment, and sustainability (pp. 25-33). (Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-323). Ogden, UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station.
30. Ecotourism Association of Australia. (1992). Newsletter, 1, 2.
31. Ecotourism Society. (1998). Ecotourism statistical fact sheet. North Bennington, VT: Author.
32. Fennell, D. A. (1999). Ecotourism: An introduction. New York: Routledge.
33. Fennell, D. A. (2000). Tourism and applied ethics. Tourism Recreation Research, 25 (1), 59-69.
34. Fennell, D. A. (2001). A content analysis of ecotourism definitions. Current Issues in Tourism, 4 (5), 403-421.
35. Fennell, D. A. (2002). Ecotourism programme planning. Wellingford, UK: CABI Publishing.
36. Fennell, D. A. (2006). Tourism ethics. Toronto, ON: Channel View Publications.
37. Fennell, D. A., & Eagles, P. (1990). Ecotourism in Costa Rica: A conceptual framework. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 1 (8), 23-34.
38. Fennell, D. A., & Malloy, D. C. (1999). Measuring the ethical nature of tourism operators. Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (4), 928-943.
39. Fennell, D. A., & Smale, B. J. (1992). Ecotourism and natural resource protection: Implications of an alternative form of tourism for host nations. Tourism Recreation Research, 17 (1), 21-32.
40. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behaviour: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Goodwin, H. (1996). In pursuit of ecotourism. Biodiversity and Conservation, 5 (3), 277-291.
41. Hair, J. F., Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
42. Halbertsma, N. F. (1988). Proper management is a must. Naturopa, 59, 23-24.
43. HLA Consultants and ARA Consulting Group. (1994). Ecotourism-nature/ adventure/culture: Alberta and British Columbia market demand assessment. Canadian Heritage, Industry Canada, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism and Culture, Alberta Economic Development and Tourism, and the Outdoor Recreation Council of BC (155 C2 E36 1995 [V. 1]. Calgary, Alberta: Canadian Heritage.
44. Jenkins, T., Birkett, D., Goodwin, H., Goldstein, P., Butcher, J., & Leech, K. (Eds.). (2002). Ethical tourism: Who benefits? London: Hodder & Stoughton.
45. Juric, B., Cornwell, T. B., & Mather, D. (2002). Exploring the usefulness of an ecotourism interest scale. Journal of Travel Research, 40 (3), 259-269.
46. Kellert, S. R. (1996). The value of life - biological diversity and human society. Washington, DC: Island Press.
47. Kusler, J. A. (1991). Ecotourism and resource conservation: Introduction to issues. In J. A. Kusler (Ed.), Ecotourism and resource conservation: A collection of papers (Vol. 1, pp. 2-8). Madison, WI: Omnipress.
48. Kutay, K. (1989). The new ethic in adventure travel. Buzzworm: The Environmental Journal, 1 (4), 31-36.
49. Laarman, J. G., & Durst, P. B. (1987). Nature travel and tropical forests (FPEI Working Paper Series). Raleigh, NC: South Eastern Center for Forest Economics Research, North Carolina State University.
50. Lai, PH., & Shafer, S. (2005). Marketing ecotourism through the internet: An evaluation of selected ecolodges in Latin America and the Caribbean. Journal of Ecotourism, 4 (3), 143-160.
51. Lemelin, R. H., & Smale, B. (2007). Wildlife tourist archetypes: Are all polar bear viewers in Churchill, Manitoba ecotourists? Tourism in Marine Environments, 4 (2-3), 97-111.
52. Lew, A. A. (1998). The Asia-Pacific ecotourism industry: Putting sustainable tourism into practice. In C. M. Hall & A. A. Lew (Eds.), Sustainable tourism: A geographical approach (pp. 92-106). London: Routledge.
53. Lewis, M., & Haviland-Jones, J. M. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of emotions. New York: Guilford Press.
54. Lindberg, K. (1991). Policies for maximising nature tourism's ecological and economic benefits. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.
55. Lundmark, C. (2007). The new ecological paradigm revisited: Anchoring the NEP scale in environmental ethics. Environmental Education Research, 13 (3), 329-347.
56. McCool, S. (1995). Linking tourism, the environment and concepts of sustainability: Setting the stage. Linking tourism, the environment and sustainability (USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-GTR-323) (pp. 3-6).
57. McFarlane, B. L. (1994). Specialization and motivations of birdwatchers. Wildlife Society Bulletin, 22 (3), 361-370.
58. McGrath, J. E., & Brinberg, D. (1983). External validity and the research process: A comment on the Calder/Lynch dialogue. Journal of Consumer Research, 10 (1), 115-124.
59. McKercher, B. (2001). The business of ecotourism. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 521-577). New York: CABI.
60. Miller, M. L., & Kaae, B. C. (1993). Coastal and marine ecotourism: A formula for sustainable development? Trends, 30 (2), 35-41.
61. Netemeyer, R. G., Bearden, W. O., & Sharma, S. (2003). Scaling procedures: Issues and applications. London: Sage Publications.
62. Neuman, K. (1986). Personal values and commitment to energy conservation. Environment and Behaviour, 18 (1), 53-74.
63. Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
64. Obua, J., & Harding, D. M. (1996). Visitor characteristics and attitudes towards Kibale National Park, Uganda. Tourism Management, 17 (7), 495-505.
65. Orams, M. B. (1995). Towards a more desirable form of ecotourism. Tourism Management, 16 (1), 3-8.
66. Orams, M. B. (2001). Types of ecotourism. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 23-36). New York: CABI.
67. Palacio, V., & McCool, S. (1997). Identifying ecotourists in Belize through benefit segmentation: A preliminary analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 5 (3), 234-243.
68. Pearce, P. L. (1991). Fundamentals of tourist motivation. In D. G. Pearce & R. W. Butler (Eds.), Tourism research: Critiques and challenges. London: Routledge.
69. Pearce, P. L., & Moscardo, G. (1994). Final report: Understanding visitor travel plans for, visitor expectations of and visitor reactions to the wet tropics world heritage area. Unpublished report. Townsville, North Queensland, Australia: Department of Tourism, James Cook University.
70. Peterson, R. A. (2001). On the use of college students in social science research: Insights from a second-order meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 28 (3), 450-461.
71. Pizam, A., & Calantone, R. (1987). Beyond psychographics: Values as determinants of tourist behaviour. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 6 (3), 177-181.
72. Plog, S. C. (1994). Developing and using psychographics in tourism research. In J. R. Ritchie & C. R. Goeldner (Eds.), Travel, tourism and hospitality research: A handbook for managers and researchers (pp. 209-218). Brisbane, Australia: John Wiley.
73. Rahemtulla, Y. G., & Wellstead, A. M. (2001). Ecotourism: Understanding competing expert and academic definitions (Information Report NOR-X-380). Edmonton, Alberta: Northern Forest Research Centre.
74. Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, attitudes, and values. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
75. Ryan, C, Hughes, K., & Chirgwin, S. (2000). The gaze, spectacle and ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 27 (1), 148-163.
76. Saleh, F., & Karwacki, J. (1996). Revisiting the ecotourist: The case of Grasslands National Park. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 4 (2), 61-80.
77. Scace, R. C., Grifone, E., & Usher, R. (1992). Ecotourism in Canada. Hull, QC: Canadian Environmental Advisory Council.
78. Scott, W. A. (1965). Values and organizations: A study of fraternities and sororities. Chicago: Rand McNally.
79. Tourism Queensland (1999). Queensland ecotourism plan. Brisbane, Australia: Department of Tourism, Small Business and Industry.
80. Valentine, P. S. (1993). Ecotourism and nature conservation: A definition with some recent developments in Micronesia. Tourism Management, 14 (2), 107-115.
81. Wallace, G. N., & Pierce, S. M. (1996). An evaluation of ecotourism in Amazonas, Brazil. Annals of Tourism Research, 23 (4), 843-873.
82. Wearing, S. (1994). Social and cultural perspectives in training for indigenous ecotourism development. Unpublished paper.
83. Weaver, D. B. (1999). Magnitude of ecotourism in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (4), 792-816.
84. Weaver, D. B. (2001a). Ecotourism. Sydney, Australia: John Wiley & Sons.
85. Weaver, D. B. (2001b). Ecotourism as mass tourism: Contradiction or reality? Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 42 (2), 104-112.
86. Weaver, D. B. (2001c). Ecotourism in the context of other tourism types. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 73-83). New York: CABI.
87. Weaver, D., & Lawton, L. (2002). Overnight ecotourist market segmentation in the gold coast hinterland of Australia. Journal of Travel Research, 40 (3), 270-280.
88. Weiler, B., & Richins, H. (1995). Extreme, extravagant, and elite: A profile of ecotourists on earthwatch expeditions. Tourism Recreation Research, 20 (1), 29-36.
89. Western, D. (1993). Defining ecotourism. In K. Lindberg & D. E. Hawkis (Eds.), Ecotourism: A guide for planners and managers (pp. 7-11). North Bennington, VT: The Ecotourism Society.
90. Wight, P. A. (1993). Sustainable ecotourism: Balancing economic, environmental and social goals within an ethical framework. Journal of Tourism Studies, 4 (2), 54-66.
91. Wight, P. A. (1996). North American ecotourism markets: Motivations, preferences, and destinations. Journal of Travel Research, 34 (4), 3-10.
92. Wight, P. A. (2001). Ecotourists: Not a homogeneous market segment. In D. B. Weaver (Ed.), The encyclopedia of ecotourism (pp. 37-62). New York: CABI.
93. Woods, B., & Moscardo, G. (1998). Understanding Australian, Japanese, and Taiwanese ecotourists in the pacific rim region. Pacific Tourism Review, 1 (3), 329-339.
94. Ziffer, K. (1989). Ecotourism: The uneasy alliance. Los Angeles: Conservation International.