Liver and kidney transplantation in HIV-infected patients

AIDS Reviews

Volumn 11, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 190-204

  Tan Tam, Clara C ^a   Frassetto, Lynda A ^a   Stock, Peter G ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

End stage organ failure; HBV; HCV; Hepatic; Renal; Transplant

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ADEFOVIR; ATAZANAVIR; AZITHROMYCIN; BASILIXIMAB; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; CYCLOSPORIN A; DACLIZUMAB; EMTRICITABINE; ENTECAVIR; FLUCONAZOLE; INDINAVIR; INTERFERON; ISONIAZID; LAMIVUDINE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; NEVIRAPINE; PREDNISONE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; RAPAMYCIN; RIBAVIRIN; RIFAMPICIN; RITONAVIR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR; SULFADIAZINE; TENOFOVIR; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTIBODY TITER; ANTIGEN ANTIBODY COMPLEX; ATYPICAL MYCOBACTERIOSIS; CANCER RISK; CANDIDIASIS; CHRONIC DISEASE; COMORBIDITY; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; DIALYSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; EPIDEMIC; FOCAL GLOMERULOSCLEROSIS; GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; GRAFT RECIPIENT; GRAFT REJECTION; GRAFT SURVIVAL; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HEPATITIS C; HEPATITIS C VIRUS; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HIV ASSOCIATED NEPHROPATHY; HOSPITAL ADMISSION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RECONSTITUTION INFLAMMATORY SYNDROME; IMMUNIZATION; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; KAPOSI SARCOMA; KIDNEY BIOPSY; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY FAILURE; KIDNEY GRAFT REJECTION; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER GRAFT REJECTION; LIVER TOXICITY; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MIXED INFECTION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PATIENT CARE; PROGRESSIVE MULTIFOCAL LEUKOENCEPHALOPATHY; PROPHYLAXIS; RECIPIENT; REINFECTION; REVIEW; TREATMENT CONTRAINDICATION; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VASCULAR TUMOR; VIRUS HEPATITIS; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS REPLICATION;

HEPATIC INSUFFICIENCY; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; RENAL INSUFFICIENCY;

EID: 74249097832     PISSN: 11396121     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Palella F, Delaney K, Moorman A, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced HIV infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:853-60.
2. Kaplan J, Hanson D, Dworkin M, et al. Epidemiology of HIV-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30(Suppl 1):S5-14.
3. Halpern S, Asch D, Shaked A, Stock P, Blumberg E. Determinants of transplant surgeons' willingness to provide organs to patients infected with HBV, HCV or HIV. Am J Transplant. 2005;5:1319-25.
4. Ragni M, Eghtesad B, Schlesinger K, Dvorchik I, Fung J. Pretransplant survival is shorter in HIV-positive than HIV-negative subjects with end-stage liver disease. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1425-30.
5. Jahangiri B, Haddad H. Cardiac transplantation in HIV-positive patients: are we there yet? J Heart Lung Transplant. 2007;26:103-7.
6. Wagner-Johnston N, Ambinder R. Blood and marrow transplant for lymphoma patients with HIV/AIDS. Curr Opin Oncol. 2008;20:201-5.
7. Alter M. Epidemiology of viral hepatitis and HIV co-infection. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S6-9.
8. Selik R, Byers R, Dworkin M. Trends in diseases reported on U.S. death certificates that mentioned HIV infection, 1987-1999. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;29:378-87.
9. Pardo V, Aldana M, Colton R, et al. Glomerular lesions in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 1984;101:429-34.
10. Rao T, Filippone E, Nicastri A, et al. Associated focal and segmental glomerulosclerosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:669-73.
11. Ross M, Klotman P. Recent progress in HIV-associated nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:2997-3004.
12. Trullas J, Barril G, Cofan F, et al. Prevalence and clinical characteristics of HIV type 1-infected patients receiving dialysis in Spain: results of a Spanish survey in 2006: GESIDA 48/05 study. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2008;24:1229-35.
13. Fine D, Perazella M, Lucas G, Atta M. Renal disease in patients with HIV infection: epidemiology, pathogenesis and management. Drugs. 2008;68:963-80.
14. Shahinian V, Rajaraman S, Borucki M, Grady J, Hollander W, Ahuja T. Prevalence of HIV-associated nephropathy in autopsies of HIV-infected patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;35:884-8.
15. Cohen A, Sun N, Shapshak P, Imagawa D. Demonstration of HIV in renal epithelium in HIV-associated nephropathy. Mod Pathol. 1989;2:125-8.
16. Nochy D, Glotz D, Dosquet P, et al. Renal disease associated with HIV infection: a multicentric study of 60 patients from Paris hospitals. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1993;8:11-9.
17. Monahan M, Tanji N, Klotman P. HIV-associated nephropathy: an urban epidemic. Semin Nephrol. 2001;21:394-402.
18. Ahuja T, Borucki M, Funtanilla M, Shahinian V, Hollander M, Rajaraman S. Is the prevalence of HIV-associated nephropathy decreasing? Am J Nephrol. 1999;19:655-9.
19. Winston J, Bruggeman L, Ross M, et al. Nephropathy and establishment of a renal reservoir of HIV type 1 during primary infection. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1979-84.
20. Abbott K, Trespalacios F, Agodoa L, Ahuja T. HIVAN and medication use in chronic dialysis patients in the United States: analysis of the USRDS DMMS Wave 2 study. BMC Nephrol. 2003;4:5.
21. Stokes M, Chawla H, Brody R, et al. Immune complex glomerulonephritis in patients coinfected with HIV and hepatitis C virus. Am J Kidney Dis. 1997;29:514-25.
22. Kimmel P, Phillips T, Ferreira-Centeno A, Farkas-Szallasi T, Abraham AA, Garrett CT. Brief report: idiotypic IgA nephropathy in patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 1992;327:702-6.
23. Kimmel P, Phillips T, Ferreira-Centeno A, Farkas-Szallasi T, Abraham A, Garrett C. HIV-associated immune-mediated renal disease. Kidney Int. 1993;44:1327-40.
24. Ahmed S, Siddiqui R, Siddiqui A, Zaidi S, Cervia J. HIV associated thrombotic microangiopathy. Postgrad Med J. 2002;78:520-5.
25. Rho M, Perazella M. Nephrotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. Curr Drug Saf. 2007;2:147-54.
26. Fichtenbaum C. Metabolic abnormalities associated with HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy. Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2009;11:84-92.
27. Soriano V, Puoti M, Peters M, et al. Care of HIV patients with chronic hepatitis B: updated recommendations from the HIV-Hepatitis B Virus International Panel. AIDS. 2008;22:1399-410.
28. Sulkowski M. Management of hepatic complications in HIV-infected persons. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 3):S279-93.
29. Ockenga J, Tillmann H, Trautwein C, Stoll M, Manns M, Schmidt R. Hepatitis B and C in HIV-infected patients. Prevalence and prognostic value. J Hepatol. 1997;27:18-24.
30. Staples C, Rimland D, Dudas D. Hepatitis C in the HIV Atlanta V.A. (Veterans Affairs Medical Center) Cohort Study (HAVACS): the effect of coinfection on survival. Clin Infect Dis. 1999;29:150-4.
31. Soto B, Sanchez-Quijano A, Rodrigo L, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus infection modifies the natural history of chronic parenterally-acquired hepatitis C with an unusually rapid progression to cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 1997;26:1-5.
32. Lesens O, Deschenes M, Steben M, Belanger G, Tsoukas C. Hepatitis C virus is related to progressive liver disease in HIV-positive hemophiliacs and should be treated as an opportunistic infection. J Infect Dis. 1999;179:1254-8.
33. Mindikoglu A, Regev A, Magder L. Impact of HIV on survival after liver transplantation: analysis of United Network for Organ Sharing database. Transplantation. 2008;85:359-68.
34. Salmon-Ceron D, Lewden C, Morlat P, et al. Liver disease as a major cause of death among HIV infected patients: role of hepatitis C and B viruses and alcohol. J Hepatol. 2005;42:799-805.
35. Merchante N, Giron-Gonzalez J, Gonzalez-Serrano M, et al. Survival and prognostic factors of HIV-infected patients with HCV-related end-stage liver disease. AIDS. 2006;20:49-57.
36. Soriano V, Garcia-Samaniego J, Bravo R, et al. [Morbidity and mortality associated with chronic viral hepatopathy in patients infected with HIV]. Med Clin (Barc). 1995;104:641-4.
37. Nunez M. Hepatotoxicity of antiretrovirals: incidence, mechanisms and management. J Hepatol. 2006;44:S132-9.
38. Servoss J, Kitch D, Andersen J, Reisler R, Chung R, Robbins G. Predictors of antiretroviral-related hepatotoxicity in the adult AIDS Clinical Trial Group (1989-1999). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:320-3.
39. Martinez E, Blanco J, Arnaiz J, et al. Hepatotoxicity in HIV-1-infected patients receiving nevirapine-containing antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2001;15:1261-8.
40. Phanuphak N, Apornpong T, Teeratakulpisarn S, et al. Nevirapine- associated toxicity in HIV-infected Thai men and women, including pregnant women. HIV Med. 2007;8:357-66.
41. Saves M, Vandentorren S, Daucourt V, et al. Severe hepatic cytolysis: incidence and risk factors in patients treated by antiretroviral combinations. Aquitaine Cohort, France, 1996-1998. Groupe dEpidemiologie Clinique de Sida en Aquitaine (GECSA). AIDS. 1999;13:F115-21.
42. Carr A, Morey A, Mallon P, Williams D, Thorburn D. Fatal portal hypertension, liver failure, and mitochondrial dysfunction after HIV-1 nucleoside analogue-induced hepatitis and lactic acidaemia. Lancet. 2001; 357:1412-4.
43. Chariot P, Drogou I, de Lacroix-Szmania I, et al. Zidovudine-induced mitochondrial disorder with massive liver steatosis, myopathy, lactic acidosis, and mitochondrial DNA depletion. J Hepatol. 1999;30:156-60.
44. Manegold C, Hannoun C, Wywiol A, et al. Reactivation of hepatitis B virus replication accompanied by acute hepatitis in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:144-8.
45. Sulkowski M, Thomas D, Chaisson R, Moore R. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with HIV and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection. JAMA. 2000;283:74-80.
46. Gil A, Lorenzetti R, Mendes G, et al. Hepatotoxicity in HIV-infected children and adolescents on antiretroviral therapy. Sao Paulo Med J. 2007;125:205-9.
47. Orenstein R, Tsogas N. Looking beyond highly active antiretroviral therapy: drug-related hepatotoxicity in patients with HIV infection. Pharmacotherapy. 2002;22:1468-78.
48. Stock P, Roland M, Carlson L, et al. Kidney and liver transplantation in HIV-infected patients: a pilot safety and efficacy study. Transplantation. 2003;76:370-5.
49. Carter J, Melcher M, Carlson L, Roland M, Stock P. Thymoglobulin- associated Cd4+ T-cell depletion and infection risk in HIV-infected renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2006;6:753-60.
50. Roland M, Barin B, Carlson L, et al. HIV-infected liver and kidney transplant recipients: 1- and 3-year outcomes. Am J Transplant. 2008;8:355-65.
51. Tan H, Kaczorowski D, Basu A, et al. Living-related donor renal transplantation in HIV+ recipients using alemtuzumab preconditioning and steroid-free tacrolimus monotherapy: a single center preliminary experience. Transplantation. 2004;78:1683-8.
52. Kumar M, Sierka D, Damask A, et al. Safety and success of kidney transplantation and concomitant immunosuppression in HIV-positive patients. Kidney Int. 2005;67:1622-9.
53. Abbott K, Swanson S, Agodoa L, Kimmel P. HIV infection and kidney transplantation in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy and modern immunosuppression. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004;15:1633-9.
54. Gruber S, Doshi M, Cincotta E, et al. Preliminary experience with renal transplantation in HIV+ recipients: low acute rejection and infection rates. Transplantation. 2008;86:269-74.
55. Pelletier S, Norman S, Christensen L, Stock P, Port F, Merion R. Review of transplantation in HIV patients during the HAART era. Clin Transpl. 2004:63-82.
56. Trullas J, Miro J, Barril G, et al. [Renal transplantation in patients with HIV infection]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2005;23:363-74.
57. Schreibman I, Gaynor J, Jayaweera D, et al. Outcomes after orthotopic liver transplantation in 15 HIV-infected patients. Transplantation. 2007;84:697-705.
58. Neff G, Bonham A, Tzakis A, et al. Orthotopic liver transplantation in patients with HIV and end-stage liver disease. Liver Transpl. 2003;9:239-47.
59. Prachalias A, Pozniak A, Taylor C, et al. Liver transplantation in adults coinfected with HIV. Transplantation. 2001;72:1684-8.
60. Ragni M, Belle S, Im K, et al. Survival of HIV-infected liver transplant recipients. J Infect Dis. 2003;188:1412-20.
61. Vogel M, Voigt E, Schafer N, et al. Orthotopic liver transplantation in HIV-positive patients: outcome of 7 patients from the Bonn cohort. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1515-21.
62. de Vera M, Dvorchik I, Tom K, et al. Survival of liver transplant patients coinfected with HIV and HCV is adversely impacted by recurrent hepatitis C. Am J Transplant. 2006;6:2983-93.
63. Wojcik K, Vogel M, Voigt E, et al. Antiviral therapy for hepatitis C virus recurrence after liver transplantation in HIV-infected patients: outcome in the Bonn cohort. AIDS. 2007;21:1363-5.
64. Roland M, Carlson L, Stock P. Solid organ transplantation in HIV-infected individuals. AIDS Clin Care. 2002;14:59-63.
65. Duclos-Vallee J, Feray C, Sebagh M, et al. Survival and recurrence of hepatitis C after liver transplantation in patients coinfected with HIV and hepatitis C virus. Hepatology. 2008;47:407-17.
66. Castaing D, Salloum C, Azoulay D, et al. Adult liver transplantation: the Paul Brousse experience. Clin Transpl. 2007:8: 145-54.
67. Miro J, Aguero F, Laguno M, et al. Liver transplantation in HIV/hepatitis co-infection. J HIV Ther. 2007;12:24-35.
68. Terrault N, Carter J, Carlson L, Roland M, Stock P. Outcome of patients with hepatitis B virus and HIV infections referred for liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2006;12:801-7.
69. Testillano M, Fernandez J, Suarez M, et al. Survival and hepatitis C virus recurrence after liver transplantation in HIV- and hepatitis C virus-coinfected patients: experience in a single center. Transplant Proc. 2009;41:1041-3.
70. Di Benedetto F, Di Sandro S, De Ruvo N, et al. HIV and liver transplantation: our point of view. Transplant Proc. 2008;40:1965-71.
71. Castells L, Escartin A, Bilbao I, et al. Liver transplantation in HIV-HCV coinfected patients: a case-control study. Transplantation. 2007;83:354-8.
72. Vennarecci G, Ettorre G, Antonini M, et al. Liver transplantation in HIV-positive patients. Transplant Proc. 2007;39:1936-8.
73. Radecke K, Fruhauf N, Miller M, et al. Outcome after orthotopic liver transplantation in five HIV-infected patients with virus hepatitis-induced cirrhosis. Liver Int. 2005;25:101-8.
74. Samuel D, Weber R, Stock P, Duclos-Vallee J, Terrault N. Are HIV-infected patients candidates for liver transplantation? J Hepatol. 2008;48:697-707.
75. Bhagani S, Sweny P, Brook G. Guidelines for kidney transplantation in patients with HIV disease. HIV Med. 2006;7:133-9.
76. O'Grady J, Taylor C, Brook G. Guidelines for liver transplantation in patients with HIV infection. HIV Med. 2005;6(Suppl 2):149-53.
77. Rouet F, Inwoley A, Ekouevi D, et al. CD4 percentages and total lymphocyte counts as early surrogate markers for pediatric HIV-1 infection in resource-limited settings. J Trop Pediatr. 2006;52:346-54.
78. O'Gorman M, Zijenah L. CD4 T cell measurements in the management of antiretroviral therapy - A review with an emphasis on pediatric HIV-infected patients. Cytometry B Clin Cytom. 2008;74(Suppl 1):S19-26.
79. Stallone G, Schena A, Infante B, et al. Sirolimus for Kaposi's sarcoma in renal-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1317-23.
80. Kamath P, Wiesner R, Malinchoc M, et al. A model to predict survival in patients with end-stage liver disease. Hepatology. 2001;33:464-70.
81. Stock P. Rapid deterioration of HIV co-infected patients waiting for liver transplantation is not predicted by MELD. Liver Transpl. 2005;11:1315-7.
82. Merchante N, Jimenez-Saenz M, Pineda J. Management of HCV-related end-stage liver disease in HIV-coinfected patients. AIDS Rev. 2007;9:131-9.
83. Kaur R, Bedimo R, Kvanli M, Turner D, Shaw L, Margolis D. A placebo-controlled pilot study of intensification of antiretroviral therapy with mycophenolate mofetil. AIDS Res Ther. 2006;3:16.
84. Margolis D, Heredia A, Gaywee J, Oldach D, Drusano G, Redfield R. Abacavir and mycophenolic acid, an inhibitor of inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, have profound and synergistic anti-HIV activity. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1999;21:362-70.
85. Liu J, Farmer J, Lane W, Friedman J, Weissman I, Schreiber S. Calcineurin is a common target of cyclophilin-cyclosporin A and FKBP-FK506 complexes. Cell. 1991;66:807-15.
86. Fruman D, Klee C, Bierer B, Burakoff S. Calcineurin phosphatase activity in T lymphocytes is inhibited by FK 506 and cyclosporin A. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1992;89:3686-90.
87. Trullas J, Cofan F, Cocchi S, et al. Effect of thymoglobulin induction on HIV-infected renal transplant recipients: differences between HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2007; 23:1161-5.
88. Sehgal S. Sirolimus: its discovery, biological properties, and mechanism of action. Transplant Proc. 2003;35:7S-14S.
89. Heredia A, Amoroso A, Davis C, et al. Rapamycin causes down-regulation of CCR5 and accumulation of anti-HIV beta-chemokines: an approach to suppress R5 strains of HIV-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003;100:10411-6.
90. Stock P, Roland M. Evolving clinical strategies for transplantation in the HIV-positive recipient. Transplantation. 2007;84:563-71.
91. Krolewiecki A, Zala C, Vanzulli C, et al. Safe treatment interruptions in patients with nadir CD4 counts of more than 350 cells/microL: a randomized trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:425-9.
92. Pogany K, van Valkengoed I, Prins J, et al. Effects of active treatment discontinuation in patients with a CD4+ T-cell nadir greater than 350 cells/mm3: 48-week Treatment Interruption in Early Starters Netherlands Study (TRIESTAN). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;44:395-400.
93. Wacher V, Wu C, Benet L. Overlapping substrate specificities and tissue distribution of cytochrome P450 3A and P-glycoprotein: implications for drug delivery and activity in cancer chemotherapy. Mol Carcinog. 1995;13:129-34.
94. Benet L, Cummins C, Wu C. Unmasking the dynamic interplay between efflux transporters and metabolic enzymes. Int J Pharm. 2004;277:3-9.
95. Frassetto L, Browne M, Cheng A, et al. Immunosuppressant pharmacokinetics and dosing modifications in HIV-1 infected liver and kidney transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2007;7:2816-20.
96. Niwa T, Murayama N, Emoto C, Yamazaki H. Comparison of kinetic parameters for drug oxidation rates and substrate inhibition potential mediated by cytochrome P450 3A4 and 3A5. Curr Drug Metab. 2008;9:20-33.
97. Lam S, Partovi N, Ting L, Ensom M. Corticosteroid interactions with cyclosporine, tacrolimus, mycophenolate, and sirolimus: fact or fiction? Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:1037-47.
98. Guiard-Schmid J, Poirier J, Bonnard P, Meynard J. Lack of interaction between atazanavir and proton pump inhibitors in HIV-infected patients treated with ritonavir-boosted atazanavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:393-4.
99. Kiser J, Lichtenstein K, Anderson P, Fletcher C. Effects of esomeprazole on the pharmacokinetics of atazanavir and fosamprenavir in a patient with HIV infection. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26:511-4.
100. Fulco P, Vora U, Bearman G. Acid suppressive therapy and the effects on protease inhibitors. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40:1974-83.
101. Colin J, Cazals-Hatem D, Loriot M, et al. Influence of HIV infection on chronic hepatitis B in homosexual men. Hepatology. 1999;29:1306-10.
102. Thibault V, Benhamou Y, Seguret C, et al. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) mutations associated with resistance to lamivudine in patients coinfected with HBV and HIV. J Clin Microbiol. 1999;37:3013-6.
103. Dore G, Cooper D, Barrett C, Goh L, Thakrar B, Atkins M. Dual efficacy of lamivudine treatment in HIV/HBV-coinfected persons in a randomized, controlled study (CAESAR). The CAESAR Coordinating Committee. J Infect Dis. 1999;180:607-13.
104. Ying C, De Clercq E, Neyts J. Lamivudine, adefovir and tenofovir exhibit long-lasting anti-hepatitis B virus activity in cell culture. J Viral Hepat. 2000;7:79-83.
105. Benhamou Y, Bochet M, Thibault V, et al. Safety and efficacy of adefovir dipivoxil in patients co-infected with HIV-1 and lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus: an open-label pilot study. Lancet. 2001;358:718-23.
106. Sorrell M, Belongia E, Costa J, et al. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: management of hepatitis B. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:104-10.
107. Di Martino V, Thevenot T, Colin J, et al. Influence of HIV infection on the response to interferon therapy and the long-term outcome of chronic hepatitis B. Gastroenterology. 2002;123:1812-22.
108. Di Martino V, Thevenot T, Boyer N, et al. HIV coinfection does not compromise liver histological response to interferon therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis C. AIDS. 2002;16:441-5.
109. Raffa G, Maimone S, Cargnel A, et al. Analysis of occult HBV infection in liver tissue of HIV patients with chronic hepatitis C. AIDS. 2007;21:2171-5.
110. Cacciola I, Pollicino T, Squadrito G, Cerenzia G, Orlando M, Raimondo G. Occult HBV infection in patients with chronic hepatitis C liver disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:22-6.
111. Sagnelli E, Coppola N, Scolastico C, et al. Isolated anti-HBc in chronic hepatitis C predicts a poor response to interferon treatment. J Med Virol. 2001;65:681-7.
112. Sagnelli E, Coppola N, Scolastico C, Mogavero A, Filippini P, Piccinino F. HCV genotype and "silent" HBV coinfection: two main risk factors for a more severe liver disease. J Med Virol. 2001;64:350-5.
113. Reiberger T, Rasoul-Rockenschaub S, Rieger A, Ferenci P, Gangl A, Peck-Radosavljevic M. Efficacy of interferon in immunocompromised HCV patients after liver transplantation or with HIV co-infection. Eur J Clin Invest. 2008;38:421-9.
114. Vispo E, Barreiro P, Pineda J, et al. Low response to pegylated interferon plus ribavirin in HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C treated with abacavir. Antivir Ther. 2008;13:429-37.
115. Moreno A, Barcena R, Garcia-Garzon S, et al. HCV clearance and treatment outcome in genotype 1 HCV-monoinfected, HIV-coinfected and liver transplanted patients on peg-IFN-alpha-2b/ribavirin. J Hepatol. 2005;43:783-90.
116. Ishii N, Watashi K, Hishiki T, et al. Diverse effects of cyclosporine on hepatitis C virus strain replication. J Virol. 2006;80:4510-20.
117. Berenguer M, Aguilera V, Prieto M, et al. Significant improvement in the outcome of HCV-infected transplant recipients by avoiding rapid steroid tapering and potent induction immunosuppression. J Hepatol. 2006; 44:717-22.
118. Samonakis D, Cholongitas E, Triantos C, et al. Sustained, spontaneous disappearance of serum HCV-RNA under immunosuppression after liver transplantation for HCV cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 2005;43:1091-3.
119. Bhagat V, Foont J, Schiff E, Regev A. Spontaneous clearance of HCV after liver transplantation in two patients coinfected with HCV and HIV. Liver Transpl. 2008;14:92-5.
120. Shores N, Maida I, Soriano V, Nunez M. Sexual transmission is associated with spontaneous HCV clearance in HIV-infected patients. J Hepatol. 2008;49:323-8.
121. Soriano V, Mocroft A, Rockstroh J, et al. Spontaneous viral clearance, viral load, and genotype distribution of HCV in HIV-infected patients with anti-HCV antibodies in Europe. J Infect Dis. 2008;198:1337-44.
122. Roland M, Stock P. Liver transplantation in HIV-infected recipients. Semin Liver Dis. 2006;26:273-84.
123. Goedert J, Cote T, Virgo P, et al. Spectrum of AIDS-associated malignant disorders. Lancet. 1998;351:1833-9.
124. Frisch M, Biggar R, Engels E, Goedert J. Association of cancer with AIDS-related immunosuppression in adults. JAMA. 2001;285:1736-45.
125. Clifford G, Polesel J, Rickenbach M, et al. Cancer risk in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study: associations with immunodeficiency, smoking, and highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97:425-32.
126. Engels E, Biggar R, Hall H, et al. Cancer risk in people infected with HIV in the United States. Int J Cancer. 2008;123:187-94.
127. MacDonald D, Nelson M, Bower M, Powles T. Hepatocellular carcinoma, HIV and viral hepatitis in the HAART era. World J Gastroenterol. 2008;14:1657-63.
128. Grulich A, van Leeuwen M, Falster M, Vajdic C. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet. 2007;370:59-67.
129. Dal Maso L, Polesel J, Serraino D, et al. Pattern of cancer risk in persons with AIDS in Italy in the HAART era. Br J Cancer. 2009;100:840-7.
130. Tien P. Management and treatment of HCV infection in HIV-infected adults: recommendations from the Veterans Affairs Hepatitis C Resource Center Program and National Hepatitis C Program Office. Am J Gastroenterol. 2005;100:2338-54.
131. Miro J, Torre-Cisnero J, Moreno A, et al. [GESIDA/GESITRA-SEIMC, PNS and ONT consensus document on solid organ transplant (SOT) in HIV-infected patients in Spain (March, 2005).]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin. 2005;23:353-62.
132. Rogers C. Lack of a renal sparing effect of rapamycin in the HIV+ transplant population. In: American Transplant Congress 2009. Boston, MA, U.S.A. 2009.