Alcoholic pancreatitis: Pathogenesis, incidence and treatment with special reference to the associated pain

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 2763-2782

  Pezzilli, Raffaele ^a   Morselli Labate, Antonio M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BOLOGNA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Alcoholic pancreatitis; Endoscopy; Gene modification; Histology; Inflammation; Pain; Patghogenesis; Surgery

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; NARCOTIC AGENT; OCTREOTIDE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACUTE PANCREATITIS; ALCOHOLIC PANCREATITIS; ALCOHOLISM; CHRONIC DISEASE; CHRONIC PANCREATITIS; CLINICAL TRIAL; ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY; HEREDITY; HISTOLOGY; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; NERVE BLOCK; PANCREAS; PANCREAS CANCER; PATHOGENESIS; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SURGICAL APPROACH;

EID: 73449090804     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6112763     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Sakorafas, G.H.; Tsiotou, A.G.; Peros. G. Mechanisms and natural history of pain in chronic pancreatitis: a surgical perspective. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2007, 41, 689-699.
2. Pezzilli, R.; Morselli Labate, A.M.; Ceciliato, R.; Frulloni, L.; Cavestro, G.M.; Comparato, G.; Ferri, B.; Corinaldesi, R.; Gullo, L. Quality of life in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Dig. Liver Dis. 2005, 37, 181-189.
3. Frulloni, L.; Gabbrielli, A.; Pezzilli, R.; Zerbi, A.; Cavestro, G.M.; Marotta, F.; Falconi, M.; Gaia, E.; Uomo, G.; Maringhini, A.; Mutignani, M.; Maisonneuve, P.; di Carlo, V.; Cavallini, G. Chronic pancreatitis: report from a multicenter Italian survey (PanCroInfAISP) on 893 patients. Dig. Liver Dis. 2009, 41, 311-317.
4. Fantini, L.; Zanini, N.; Fiscaletti, M.; Calculli, L.; Casadei, R.; Campana, D.; Pezzilli, R. Autoimmune pancreatitis: the classification puzzle. Adv. Med. Sci. 2007, 52, 71-75.
5. Lowenfels, A.B.; Maisonneuve, P. Epidemiology and risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2006, 20, 197-209.
6. Lankisch, P.G., Banks, P.A. Pancreatitis, 1st Ed.; Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany, 1998.
7. Ministero del Lavoro, della Salute e delle Politiche Sociali. Available online: http://www.ministerosalute.it/programmazione/sdo/ric-informazioni/ sceltadia.jsp (accessed 14 July 2009).
8. O'Sullivan, J.N.; Nobrega, F.T.; Morlock, C.G.; Brown, A.L., Jr; Bartholomew, L.G. Acute and chronic pancreatitis in Rochester, Minnesota, 1940 to 1969. Gastroenterology 1972, 62, 373-379.
9. James, O.; Agnew, J.E.; Bouchier, I.A. Chronic pancreatitis in England: a changing picture. Br. Med. J. 1974, 2, 34-38.
10. Gullo, L.; Costa, P.L.; Labò, G. Chronic pancreatitis in Italy. Aetiological, clinical and histological observations based on 253 cases. Rendic. Gastroenterol. 1977, 9, 97-104.
11. Durbec, J.P.; Sarles, H. Multicenter survey of the etiology of pancreatic diseases. Relationship between the relative risk of developing chronic pancreatitis and alcohol, protein and lipid consumption. Digestion 1978, 18, 337-350.
12. Sarles, H.; Cros, R.C.; Bidart, J.M. A multicenter inquiry into the etiology of pancreatic diseases. Digestion 1979, 19, 110-125.
13. Pedersen, T.N.; Andersen, N.B.; Pedersen, G.; Worning, H. Chronic pancreatitis in Copenhagen. A retrospective study of 64 consecutive patients. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 1982, 17, 925-931.
14. Ammann, R.W.; Akovbiantz, A.; Largiader, F.; Schueler, G. Course and outcome of chronic pancreatitis. Longitudinal study of a mixed medical-surgical series of 245 patients. Gastroenterology 1984, 86, 820-828.
15. Dzieniszewski, J.; Jarosz, M.; Ciok, J. Chronic pancreatitis in Warsaw. Mater Med. Pol. 1990, 22, 202-204.
16. Johnson, C.D.; Hosking, S. National statistics for diet, alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis in England and Wales, 1960-88. Gut 1991, 32, 1401-1405.
17. Jaakkola, M.; Nordback, I. Pancreatitis in Finland between 1970 and 1989. Gut 1993, 34, 1255-1260.
18. Cavallini, G.; Frulloni, L.; Pederzoli, P.; Talamini, G.; Bovo, P.; Bassi, C.; Di Francesco, V.; Vaona, B.; Falconi, M.; Sartori, N.; Angelini, G.; Brunori, M.P.; Filippini, M. Long-term follow-up of patients with chronic pancreatitis in Italy. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 1998, 33, 880-889.
19. Díte, P.; Starý, K.; Novotný, I.; Precechtelová, M.; Dolina, J.; Lata, J.; Zboril, V. Incidence of chronic pancreatitis in the Czech Republic. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2001, 13, 749-750.
20. Dani, R.; Mott, C.B.; Guarita, D.R.; Nogueira, C.E. Epidemiology and etiology of chronic pancreatitis in Brazil: a tale of two cities. Pancreas 1990, 5, 474-478.
21. Smith, D.I.; Burvill, P.W. Relationship between male pancreatitis morbidity and alcohol consumption in Western Australia, 1971-84. Br. J. Addict. 1990, 85, 655-658.
22. Marks, I.N.; Girdwood, A.H.; Bank, S.; Louw, J.H. The prognosis of alcohol-induced calcific pancreatitis. S. Afr. Med. J. 1980, 57, 640-643.
23. Otsuki, M. Chronic pancreatitis in Japan: epidemiology, prognosis, diagnostic criteria, and future problems. J. Gastroenterol. 2003, 38, 315-326.
24. Lin, Y.; Tamakoshi, A.; Hayakawa, T.; Ogawa, M.; Ohno, Y. Associations of alcohol drinking and nutrient intake with chronic pancreatitis: findings from a case-control study in Japan. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2001, 96, 2622-2627.
25. Das, S.K.; Balakrishnan, V.; Vasudevan, D.M. Alcohol: its health and social impact in India. Natl. Med. J. India 2006, 19, 94-99.
26. WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004. World Health Organization Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse: Geneva, Switzerland, 2004.
27. Gullo, L.; Barbara, L.; Labò, G. Effect of cessation of alcohol use on the course of pancreatic dysfunction in alcoholic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1988, 95, 1063-1068.
28. Le Bodic, L.; Bignon, J.D.; Raguenes, O.; Mercier, B.; Georgelin, T.; Schnee, M.; Soulard, F.; Gagne, K.; Bonneville, F.; Muller, J.Y.; Bachner, L.; Férec, C. The hereditary pancreatitis gene maps to long arm of chromosome 7. Hum. Mol. Genet. 1996, 5, 549-554.
29. Whitcomb, D.C.; Preston, R.A.; Aston, C.E.; Sossenheimer, M.J.; Barua, P.S.; Zhang, Y.; Wong-Chong, A.; White, G.J.; Wood, P.G.; Gates, L.K., Jr.; Ulrich, C.; Martin, S.P.; Post, J.C.; Ehrlich, G.D. A gene for hereditary pancreatitis maps to chromosome 7q35. Gastroenterology 1996, 110, 1975-1980.
30. Whitcomb, D.C.; Gorry, M.C.; Preston, R.A.; Furey, W.; Sossenheimer, M.J.; Ulrich, C.D.; Martin, S.P.; Gates, L.K., Jr.; Amann, S.T.; Toskes, P.P.; Liddle, R.; McGrath, K.; Uomo, G.; Post, J.C.; Ehrlich, G.D. Hereditary pancreatitis is caused by a mutation in the cationic trypsinogen gene. Nat. Genet. 1996, 14, 141-145.
31. Witt, H.; Luck, W.; Hennies, H.C.; Classen, M.; Kage, A.; Lass, U.; Landt, O.; Becker, M. Mutations in the gene encoding the serine protease inhibitor, Kazal type 1 are associated with chronic pancreatitis. Nat. Genet. 2000, 25, 213-216.
32. Keim, V. Genetic risk factors in pancreatic diseases - significance for general practice. Med. Klin. (Munich) 2002, 97, 278-284.
33. Pezzilli, R.; Morselli-Labate, A.M.; Mantovani, V.; Romboli, E.; Selva, P.; Migliori, M.; Corinaldesi, R.; Gullo, L. Mutations of the CFTR gene in pancreatic disease. Pancreas 2003, 27, 332-346.
34. Verlaan, M.; Te Morsche, R.H.; Roelofs, H.M.; Laheij, R.J.; Jansen, J.B.; Peters, W.H.; Drenth, J.P. Genetic polymorphisms in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and chronic pancreatitis. Alcohol Alcohol. 2004, 39, 20-24.
35. Ryu, J.K.; Lee, J.K.; Kim, Y.T.; Lee, D.K.; Seo, D.W.; Lee, K.T.; Seo, D.W.; Lee, K.T.; Kim, H.G.; Kim, J.S.; Lee, H.S.; Kim, T.N.; Rho, M.H.; Moon, J.H.; Lee, J.; Choi, H.S.; Lee, W.J.; Yoo, B.M.; Yoon, Y.B. Clinical features of chronic pancreatitis in Korea: a multicenter nationwide study. Digestion 2005, 72, 207-211.
36. Garg, P.K.; Tandon, R.K. Survey on chronic pancreatitis in the Asia-Pacific region. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2004, 19, 998-1004.
37. Pezzilli, R.; Morselli-Labate, A.M.; Fantini, L.; Campana, D.; Corinaldesi, R. Assessment of the quality of life in chronic pancreatitis using Sf-12 and EORTC QLQ-C30 questionnaires. Dig. Liver Dis. 2007, 39, 1077-1086.
38. Montalto, G.; Carroccio, A.; Soresi, M.; Ficano, L.; Notarbartolo, A. Chronic pancreatitis in Sicily. Preliminary reports. Ital. J. Gastroenterol. 1990, 22, 33-35.
39. Balakrishnan, V.; Unnikrishnan, A.G.; Thomas, V.; Choudhuri, G.; Veeraraju, P.; Singh, S.P.; Garg, P.; Pai, C.G.; Devi, R.N.; Bhasin, D.; Jayanthi, V.; Premalatha, N.; Chacko, A.; Kar, P.; Rai, R.R.; Rajan, R.; Subhalal, N.; Mehta, R.; Mishra, S.P.; Dwivedi, M.; Vinayakumar, K.R.; Jain, A.K.; Biswas, K.; Mathai, S.; Varghese, J.; Ramesh, H.; Alexander, T.; Philip, J.; Raj, V.V.; Vinodkumar, A.; Mukevar, S.; Sawant, P.; Nair, P.; Kumar, H.; Sudhindran, S.; Dhar, P.; Sudheer, O.V.; Sundaram, K.R.; Tantri, B.V.; Singh, D.; Nath, T.R. Chronic pancreatitis. A prospective nationwide study of 1,086 Subjects from India. JOP. J. Pancreas (Online) 2008, 9, 593-600.
40. Talukdar, R.; Saikia, N.; Singal, D.K.; Tandon, R. Chronic pancreatitis: evolving paradigms. Pancreatology 2006, 6, 440-449.
41. Morselli-Labate, A.M.; Fantini, L.; Pezzilli, R. Hydrogen sulfide, nitric oxide and a molecular mass 66 u substance in the exhaled breath of chronic pancreatitis patients. Pancreatology 2007, 7, 497-504.
42. Watari, N.; Hotta, Y.; Mabuchi, Y. Morphological studies on a vitamin A-storing cell and its complex with macrophage observed in mouse pancreatic tissues following excess vitamin A administration. Okajimas Folia Anat. Jpn. 1982, 58, 837-858.
43. Apte, M.V.; Haber, P.S.; Applegate, T.L.; Norton, I.D.; McCaughan, G.W.; Korsten, M.A.; Pirola, R.C.; Wilson, J.S. Periacinar stellate shaped cells in rat pancreas: identification, isolation and culture. Gut 1998, 43, 128-133.
44. Bachem, M.G.; Schneider, E.; Gross, H.; Weidenbach, H.; Schmid, R.M.; Menke, A.; Siech, M.; Beger, H.; Grünert, A.; Adler, G. Identification, culture and characterization of pancreatic stellate cells in rats and humans. Gastroenterology 1998, 115, 421-432.
45. Apte, M.V.; Phillips, P.A.; Fahmy, R.G.; Darby, S.J.; Rodgers, S.C.; McCaughan, G.W.; Korsten, M.A.; Pirola, R.C.; Naidoo, D.; Wilson, J.S. Does alcohol directly stimulate pancreatic fibrogenesis? Studies with rat pancreatic stellate cells. Gastroenterology 2000, 118, 780-794.
46. Saotome, T.; Inoue, H.; Fujiyama, Y.; Bamba, T. Morphological and immunocytochemical identification of periacinar fibroblast-like cells derived from human pancreatic acini. Pancreas 1997, 14, 373-382.
47. Schneider, E.; Schmid-Kotsas, A.; Zhao, J.; Weidenbach, H.; Schmid, R.M.; Menke, A.; Adler, G.; Waltenberger, J.; Grünert, A.; Bachem, M.G. Identification of mediators stimulating proliferation and matrix synthesis of rat pancreatic stellate cells. Am. J. Physiol. Cell. Physiol. 2001, 281, C532-543.
48. Apte, M.V.; Haber, P.S.; Darby, S.J.; Rodgers, S.C.; McCaughan, G.W.; Korsten, M.A.; Pirola, R.C.; Wilson, J.S. Pancreatic stellate cells are activated by proinflammatory cytokines: implications for pancreatic fibrogenesis. Gut 1999, 44, 534-41.
49. Phillips, P.A.; Wu, M.J.; Kumar, R.K.; Doherty, E.; McCarroll, J.A.; Park, S.; Pirola, R.C.; Wilson, J.S.; Apte, M.V. Cell migration: a novel aspect of pancreatic stellate cell biology. Gut 2003, 52, 677-682.
50. Phillips, P.A.; McCarroll, J.A.; Park, S.; Wu, M.J.; Pirola, R.; Korsten, M.; Wilson, J.S.; Apte, M.V. Rat pancreatic stellate cells secrete matrix metalloproteinases: implications for extracellular matrix turnover. Gut 2003, 52, 275-82.
51. Shimizu, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Tahara, J.; Shiratori, K. Cytokines and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma ligand regulate phagocytosis by pancreatic stellate cells. Gastroenterology 2005, 128, 2105-2118.
52. Lopez-Ilasaca, M. Signaling from G-protein-coupled receptors to mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase cascades. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1998, 56, 269-277.
53. Masamune, A.; Kikuta, K.; Satoh, M.; Satoh, A.; Shimosegawa, T. Alcohol activates activator protein-1 and mitogen-activated protein kinases in rat pancreatic stellate cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2002, 302, 36-42.
54. McCarroll, J.A.; Phillips, P.A.; Park, S.; Doherty, E.; Pirola, R.C.; Wilson, J.S.; Apte, M.V. Pancreatic stellate cell activation by ethanol and acetaldehyde: is it mediated by the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathway? Pancreas 2003, 27, 150-160.
55. McCarroll, J.A.; Phillips, P.A.; Kumar, R.K.; Park, S.; Pirola, R.C.; Wilson, J.S.; Apte, M.V. Pancreatic stellate cell migration: role of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase(PI3-kinase) pathway. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2004, 67, 1215-1225.
56. Jaster, R.; Sparmann, G.; Emmrich, J.; Liebe, S. Extracellular signal regulated kinases are key mediators of mitogenic signals in rat pancreatic stellate cells. Gut 2002, 51, 579-584.
57. Lewis, T.S.; Shapiro, P.S.; Ahn, N.G. Signal transduction through MAP kinase cascades. Adv. Cancer Res. 1998, 74, 49-139.
58. Chang, L.; Karin, M. Mammalian MAP kinase signalling cascades. Nature 2001, 410, 37-40.
59. Rebollo, A.; Martinez, A.C. Ras proteins: recent advances and new functions. Blood 1999, 94, 2971-2980.
60. Casey, P.J.; Solski, P.A.; Der, C.J.; Buss, J.E. p21ras is modified by a farnesyl isoprenoid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1989, 86, 8323-8327.
61. Goldstein, J.L.; Brown, M.S. Regulation of mevalonate pathway. Nature 1990, 343, 425-430.
62. Ohnishi, H.; Miyata, T.; Yasuda, H.; Satoh, Y.; Hanatsuka, K.; Kita, H.; Ohashi, A.; Tamada, K.; Makita, N.; Iiri, T.; Ueda, N.; Mashima, H.; Sugano, K. Distinct roles of Smad2-, Smad3-, and ERK-dependent pathways in transforming growth factor-beta1 regulation of pancreatic stellate cellular functions. J. Biol. Chem. 2004, 279, 8873-8878.
63. Masamune, A.; Kikuta, K.; Satoh, M.; Sakai, Y.; Satoh, A.; Shimosegawa, T. Ligands of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma block activation of pancreatic stellate cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 141-147.
64. Masamune, A.; Kikuta, K.; Satoh, M.; Suzuki, N.; Shimosegawa, T. Protease-activated receptor-2-ediated proliferation and collagen production of rat pancreatic stellate cells. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2005, 312, 651-658.
65. Suda, K.; Fukumura, Y.; Takase, M.; Kashiwagi, S.; Izumi, M.; Kumasaka, T.; Suzuki, F. Activated perilobular, not periacinar, pancreatic stellate cells contribute to fibrogenesis in chronic alcoholic pancreatitis. Pathol. Int. 2007, 57, 21-25.
66. Kuroda, J.; Suda, K.; Hosokawa, Y. Periacinar collagenization in patients with chronic alcoholism. Pathol. Int. 1998, 48, 857-868.
67. Martin, E.; Bedossa, P. Diffuse fibrosis of the pancreas: a peculiar pattern of pancreatitis in alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterol. Clin. Biol. 1989, 13, 579-584.
68. Suda, K.; Takase, M.; Takei, K.; Nakamura, T.; Akai, J.; Nakamura, T. Histopathologic study of coexistent pathologic states in pancreatic fibrosis in patients with chronic alcohol abuse: two distinct pathologic fibrosis entities with different mechanisms. Pancreas 1996, 12, 69-72.
69. Machado, M.C.C.; Monteiro, J.E.; Bacchella, T.; de Barros Mott, C.; Duarte, I.; Bettarello, A. Acute pancreatic necrosis in chronic alcoholic pancreatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 1984, 29, 709-713.
70. Migliori, M.; Manca, M.; Santini, D.; Pezzilli, R.; Gullo, L. Does acute alcoholic pancreatitis precede the chronic form or is the opposite true? A histological study. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2004, 38, 272-275.
71. Skinazi, F.; Levy, P.; Bernades, P. Les pancréatites aigues alcooliques révèlent-elles toujours une pancréatite chronique? Gastroenterol. Clin. Biol. 1995, 19, 266-269.
72. Hanck, C.; Singer, M.V. Does acute alcoholic pancreatitis exist without preexisting chronic pancreatitis? Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 1997, 32, 625-626.
73. Comfort, M.; Gambill, E.; Baggenstoss, A. Chronic relapsing pancreatitis: a study of 29 cases without associated disease of the biliary or gastro-intestinal tract. Gastroenterology 1946, 6, 239-285.
74. Ammann, R.W.; Heitz, P.U.; Kloppel, G. Course of alcoholic chronic pancreatitis: a prospective clinicomorphological long-term study. Gastroenterology 1996, 111, 224-231.
75. Oruc, N.; Whitcomb, D.C. Theories, mechanisms, and models of alcoholic chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterol. Clin. N. Am. 2004, 33, 733-750.
76. Pandol, S.J.; Raraty, M. Pathobiology of alcoholic pancreatitis. Pancreatology 2007, 7, 105-114.
77. Singh, M. Alcoholic pancreatitis in rats fed ethanol in a nutritionally adequate liquid diet. Int. J. Pancreatol. 1987, 2, 311-324.
78. Gukovsky, I.; Lugea, A.; Shahsahebi, M.; Cheng, J.H.; Hong, P.P.; Jung, Y.J.; Deng, Q.G.; French, B.A.; Lungo, W.; French, S.W.; Tsukamoto, H.; Pandol, S.J. A rat model reproducing key pathological responses of alcoholic chronic pancreatitis. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2008, 294, G68-79.
79. Michalski, C.W.; Selvaggi, F.; Bartel, M.; Mitkus, T.; Gorbachevski, A.; Giese, T.; Sebastiano, P.D.; Giese, N.A.; Friess, H. Altered anti-inflammatory response of mononuclear cells to neuropeptide PACAP is associated with deregulation of NF-kappaB in chronic pancreatitis. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2008, 294, G50-57.
80. Bockman, D.E.; Buchler, M.; Malfertheiner, P.; Beger, H.G. Analysis of nerves in chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 1988, 115, 1459-1469.
81. Xu, G.Y.; Winston, J.H.; Shenoy, M.; Yin, H.; Pendyala, S.; Pasricha, P.J. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 mediates hyperalgesia and is up-regulated in rats with chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2007, 133, 1282-1292.
82. Wick, E.C.; Hoge, S.G.; Grahn, S.W.; Kim, E.; Divino, L.A.; Grady, E.F.; Bunnett, N.W.; Kirkwood, K.S. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 1, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and substance P mediate nociception in acute pancreatitis. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 2006, 290, G959-569.
83. Vera-Portocarrero, L.; Westlund, K.N. Role of neurogenic inflammation in pancreatitis and pancreatic pain. Neurosignals 2005, 14, 158-165.
84. Dimcevski, G.; Sami, S.A.; Funch-Jensen, P.; Le Pera, D.; Valeriani, M.; Arendt-Nielsen, L.; Drewes, A.M. Pain in chronic pancreatitis: the role of reorganisation in the central nervous system. Gastroenterology 2007, 132, 1546-1556.
85. Drewes, A.M.; Krarup, A.L.; Detlefsen, S.; Malmstrøm, M.L.; Dimcevski, G.; Funch-Jensen, P. Pain in chronic pancreatitis: the role of neuropathic pain mechanisms. Gut 2008, 57, 616-627.
86. Drewes, A.M.; Gratkowski, M.; Sami, S.A.; Dimcevski, G.; Funch-Jensen, P.; Arendt-Nielsen, L. Is the pain in chronic pancreatitis of neuropathic origin? Support from EEG studies during experimental pain. World J. Gastroenterol. 2008, 14, 4020-4027.
87. Vijungco, J.D.; Prinz, R.A. Management of biliary and duodenal complications of chronic pancreatitis. World J. Surg. 2003, 27, 1258-1270.
88. Lowenfels, A.B.; Maisonneuve, P.; Lankisch, P.G. Chronic pancreatitis and other risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 1999, 28, 673-685.
89. Lowenfels, A.B.; Maisonneuve, P.; Cavallini, G.; Ammann, R.W.; Lankisch, P.G.; Andersen, J.R.; Dimagno, E.P.; Andrén-Sandberg, A.; Domellöf, L. Pancreatitis and the risk of pancreatic cancer. International Pancreatitis Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1993, 328, 1433-1437.
90. Lieb, J.G., II; Shuster, J.J.; Theriaque, D.; Curington, C.; Cintrón, M.; Toskes, P.P. A pilot study of Octreotide LAR® vs. Octreotide tid for pain and quality of life in chronic pancreatitis. JOP. J. Pancreas (Online) 2009, 10, 518-522.
91. Kongkam, P.; Wagner, D.L.; Sherman, S.; Fogel, E.L.; Whittaker, S.C.; Watkins, J.L.; McHenry, L.; Lehman, G.A. Intrathecal narcotic infusion pumps for intractable pain of chronic pancreatitis: a pilot series. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 2009, 104, 1249-1255.
92. Dahm, P.; Nitescu, P.; Appelgren, L.; Curelaru, I. Efficacy and technical complications of long-term continuous intraspinal infusions of opioid and/or bupivacaine in refractory nonmalignant pain: a comparison between the epidural and the intrathecal approach with externalized or implanted catheters and in Clin. J. Pain 1998, 14, 4-16.
93. Pezzilli, R.; Fantini, L. Antioxidants and pain control in patients with chronic pancreatitis: a never-ending story. Turk. J. Med. Sci. 2007, 37, 3-6.
94. Bhardwaj, P.; Garg, P.K.; Maulik, S.K.; Saraya, A.; Tandon, R.K.; Acharya, S.K. A randomized controlled trial of antioxidant supplementation for pain relief in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2009, 136, 149-159.
95. Dite, P.; Ruzicka, M.; Zboril, V.; Novotny, I. A prospective, randomized trial comparing endoscopic and surgical therapy for chronic pancreatitis. Endoscopy 2003, 35, 553-558.
96. Costamagna, G.; Bulajic, M.; Tringali, A.; Pandolfi, M.; Gabbrielli, A.; Spada, C.; Petruzziello, L.; Familiari, P.; Mutignani, M. Multiple stenting of refractory pancreatic duct strictures in severe chronic pancreatitis: long-term results. Endoscopy 2006, 38, 254-259.
97. Weber, A.; Schneider, J.; Neu, B.; Meining, A.; Born, P.; Schmid, R.M.; Prinz, C. Endoscopic stent therapy for patients with chronic pancreatitis: results from a prospective follow-up study. Pancreas 2007, 34, 287-294.
98. Cahen, D.L.; Gouma, D.J.; Nio, Y.; Rauws, E.A.; Boermeester, M.A.; Busch, O.R.; Stoker, J.; Laméris, J.S.; Dijkgraaf, M.G.; Huibregtse, K.; Bruno, M.J. Endoscopic versus surgical drainage of the pancreatic duct in chronic pancreatitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2007, 356, 676-684.