Predator lethality, optimal escape behavior, and autotomy

Behavioral Ecology

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 91-96

  Cooper Jr , William E ^a   Frederick, William G ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY PURDUE UNIVERSITY FORT WAYNE   (United States)

Author keywords

Approach distance; Autotomy; Escape; Flight distance; Flight initiation distance; Flush distance; Predator lethality

Indexed keywords

ANTIPREDATOR DEFENSE; AUTOTOMY; ESCAPE BEHAVIOR; FITNESS; FLIGHT; PREDATION RISK; REGROWTH;

EID: 72649098886     PISSN: 10452249     EISSN: 14657279     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arp151     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. Arnold EN. 1984. Evolutionary aspects of tail shedding in lizards and their relatives. J Nat Hist. 18:127-169.
2. Arnold EN. 1988. Caudal autotomy as a defense. In: Gans C, Huey RB, editors. Biology of the reptilia, Vol.16 ecology B defenses and life history. New York: Alan R. Liss. p. 235-273.
3. Ballinger RE,Nietfeldt JW, Krupa JJ. 1979.Anexperimental analysisofthe role of the tail in attaining high running speed in Cnemidophorus sexli-neatus (Reptilia: Squamata: Lacertilia). Herpetologica. 35:114-116.
4. Barrios JV, Gaymer CF, Vasquez JA, Brokordt KB. 2008. Effect of the degree of autotomy on feeding, growth, and reproductive capacity in the multi-armed se star Heliaster helianthus. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 361:21-27.
5. Bateman PW, Fleming PA. 2005. Direct and indirect costs of limb autotomy in field crickets Gryllus bimaculatus. Anim Behav. 69: 151-159.
6. Bateman PW, Fleming PA. 2009. To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years. J Zool. 277:1-14.
7. Bauwens D, Thoen C. 1981. Escape tactics and vulnerability to pre-dation associated with reproduction in the lizard Lacerta vivipara. J Anim Ecol. 50:733-743.
8. Berzins IK, Caldwell RL. 1983. The effect of injury on the agonistic behavior of the stomatopod, Gonodactylus bredini (Manning). Mar Behav Physiol. 10:83-96.
9. Blumstein DT. 2003. Flight-initiation distance in birds is dependent on intruder starting distance. J Wildl Manag. 67:852-857.
10. Brueseke M, Rypstra A, Walker S, Persons M. 2001. Leg autotomy in the wolf spider Pardosa milvina: a common phenomenon with few apparent costs. Am Midl Nat. 146:153-160.
11. Caro TM. 2005. Antipredator defenses in birds and mammals. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
12. Clark CW. 1994. Antipredator behavior and the asset-protection principle. Behav Ecol. 5:159-170.
13. Congdon JD, Vitt LJ, King WW. 1974. Geckos: adaptive significance and energetics of tail autotomy. Science. 184:1379-1380.
14. Cooper WE Jr. 1997. Factors affecting risk and cost of escape by the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps): predator speed, directness of approach, and female presence. Herpetologica. 53:464-474.
15. Cooper WE Jr. 1998a. Conditions favoring anticipatory and reactive displays deflecting predatory attack. Behav Ecol. 9:598-614.
16. Cooper WE Jr. 1998b. Reactive and anticipatory display to deflect predatory attack to an autotomous lizard tail. Can J Zool. 76:1507-1510.
17. Cooper WE Jr. 1999. Tradeoffs between courtship, fighting, and anti-predatory behavior by a lizard, Eumeces laticeps. Behav Ecol Socio-biol. 47:54-59.
18. Cooper WE Jr. 2000. Tradeoffs between predation risk and feeding in a lizard, the broad-headed skink (Eumeces laticeps). Behaviour. 137:1175-1189.
19. Cooper WE Jr. 2003. Shifted balance of risk and cost after autotomy affects use of cover, escape, activity, and foraging in the keeled earless lizard (Holbrookia propinqua). Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 54:179-187.
20. Cooper WE Jr. 2007. Compensatory changes in escape and refuge use following autotomy in the lizard Sceloporus virgatus. Can J Zool. 85:99-107.
21. Cooper WE Jr. 2008. Visual monitoring of predators: occurrence, cost and benefit for escape. Anim Behav. 76:1365-1372.
22. Cooper WE Jr. 2009. Optimal escape theory predicts escape behaviors beyond flight initiation distance: risk assessment and escape by striped plateau lizards (Sceloporus virgatus). Curr Zool. 55:123-132.
23. Cooper WE Jr, Frederick WG. 2007a. Optimal flight initiation distance. J Theor Biol. 244:59-67.
24. Cooper WE Jr, Frederick WG. 2007b. Optimal time to emerge from refuge. Biol J Linn Soc. 91:375-382.
25. Cooper WE Jr, Pérez-Mellado V. 2004. Tradeoffs between escape behavior and foraging opportunity by the Balearic lizard (Podarcis lilfordi). Herpetologica. 60:321-324.
26. Cooper WE Jr, Perez-Mellado V, Hawlena D. 2006. Magnitude of food reward affects escape behavior and acceptable risk in Balearic lizards, Podarcis lilfordi. Behav Ecol. 17:554-559.
27. Cooper WE Jr, Smith C. 2009. Costs and economy of autotomy for tail movement and running speed in the lizard Trachylepis maculilab-ris. Can J Zool. 87:400-406.
28. Cooper WE Jr, Vitt LJ. 1985. Blue tails and autotomy: enhancement of predation avoidance in juvenile skinks. Z Tierpsychol. 70:265-276.
29. Cooper WE Jr, Vitt LJ. 1991. Influence of deteetability and ability to escape on natural selection of conspicuous autotomous defenses. Can J Zool. 69:757-764.
30. Cooper WE Jr, Vitt LJ, Hedges R, Huey RB. 1990. Locomotor impairment and defense in gravid lizards (Eumeces laticeps): behavioral shift in activity may offset costs of reproduction in an active forager. Behav Ecol Sociobiol. 27:153-157.
31. Cooper WE Jr, Whiting MJ. 2007. Universal optimization of flight initiation distance and habitat-driven variation in escape tactics in a Namibian lizard assemblage. Ethology. 113:661-672.
32. Cooper WE Jr, Wilson DS. 2008. How to stay alive after losing your tail. Behaviour. 145:1085-1089.
33. Cooper WE Jr, Wilson DS, Smith GR. 2009. Sex, reproductive status, and cost of tail autotomy via decreased running speed. Ethology. 115:7-13.
34. Cott HB. 1940. Adaptive coloration in animals. London: Methuen.
35. Cresswell W. 2008. Non-lethal effects of predation in birds. Ibis. 150:3-17.
36. Daniels CB. 1983. Running: an escape strategy enhanced by autotomy. Herpetologica. 39:162-165.
37. Daniels CB. 1984. The importance of caudal lipid in the gecko Phyllo-dactylus marmoratus. Herpetologica. 40:337-344.
38. D́iaz-Uriarte R. 1999. Anti-predator behaviour changes following an aggressive encounter in the lizard Tropidurus hispidus. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 266:2457-2464.
39. Downes S, Shine R. 2001. Why does tail loss increase a lizard's later vulnerability to snake predators? Ecology. 82:1293-1303.
40. Edmunds M. 1974. Defence in animals. Harlow (UK): Longman.
41. Fleming PA, Muller D, Bateman PW. 2007. Leave it all behind: a taxo-nomic perspective of autotomy in invertebrates. Biol Rev. 82:481-510.
42. Formanowicz DR Jr, Brodie ED Jr, Bradley PJ. 1990. Behavioral compensation for tail loss in the ground skink, Scincella lateralis. Anim Behav. 40:782-784.
43. Fox SF, Heger NA, Delay LS. 1990. Social cost of tail loss in Uta stansburiana: lizard tails as status-signalling badges. Anim Behav. 39:549-554.
44. Fox SF, Rostker MA. 1982. Social cost of tail loss in Uta stansburiana. Science. 218:692-693.
45. Guffey C. 1999. Costs associated with leg autotomy in the harvestman Leiobunum nigripes and Leiobunum vittatum (Arachnida: Opiliones). Can J Zool. 77:824-830.
46. Heithaus MR, Frid A, Dill LM. 2002. Shark-inflicted injury frequencies, escape ability, and habitat use of green and loggerhead turtles. Mar Biol. 140:229-236.
47. Lima SL. 1998. Nonlethal effects in the ecology of predator-prey interactions. Bioscience. 48:25-34.
48. Lima SL, Dill LM. 1990. Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus. Can J Zool. 68:619-640.
49. Losos JB, Mouton PLFN, Bickel R, Cornelius I, Ruddock L. 2002. The effect of body armature on escape behaviour in cordylid lizards. Anim Behav. 64:313-321.
50. Mart́in J, López P. 2003. Changes in the escape responses of the lizard Acanthodactylus erythrurus under persistent predatory attacks. Co-peia. 2003:408-413.
51. McCarthy TM, Dickey BF. 2002. Chemically mediated effects of injured prey on behavior of both prey and predators. Behaviour. 139:585-603.
52. Punzo F. 1982. Tail autotomy and running speed in the lizards Copho-saurus texanus and Uma notata. J Herpetol. 16:329-331.
53. Riechert SE. 1988. The energetic cost of fighting. Am Zool. 28: 877-884.
54. Ruxton GD, Speed M, Sherratt TN. 2004. Avoiding attack: the evolutionary ecology of crypsis, warning signals and mimicry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
55. Shine R. 1980. "Costs" of reproduction in reptiles. Oecologia (Berl). 46:92-100.
56. Smith LD, Hines AH. 1991. The effect of cheliped loss on blue crab Callinectes sapidus Rathbun foraging rate on soft-shelled clams Mya arenaria. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol. 151:245-256.
57. Snell HL, Jennings RD, Snell HM, Harcourt S. 1988. Intrapopulation variation in predator avoidance performance in Galapagos lava lizards: the interaction of sexual and natural selection. Evol Ecol. 2:353-369.
58. Stankowich T, Blumstein DT. 2005. Fear in animals: a meta-analysis and review of risk assessment. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 272:2627-2634.
59. Stankowich T, Coss RG. 2006. Effects of predator behavior and proximity on risk assessment by Columbian black-tailed deer. Behav Ecol. 17:246-254.
60. Vitt LJ. 2000. Ecological consequences of body size in neonatal and small-bodied lizards in the neotropics. Herp Monogr. 14:388-400.
61. Vitt LJ, Cooper WE Jr. 1986. Tail loss, tail color, and predator escape in Eumeces (Lacertilia: Scincidae): age-specific differences in costs and benefits. Can J Zool. 64:583-592.
62. Ydenberg RC, Dill LM. 1986. The economics of fleeing from predators. Adv Stud Behav. 16:229-249.