Structure and function in mammalian societies

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

Volumn 364, Issue 1533, 2009, Pages 3229-3242

  Clutton Brock, Tim ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cooperation; Evolution; Life histories; Mammals; Reproductive strategies; Societies

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; FITNESS; GROUP BEHAVIOR; LIFE HISTORY; MAMMAL; PARENTAL CARE; REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY; SOCIAL ORGANIZATION; SPECIALIZATION;

ANIMALIA; HEXAPODA; MAMMALIA;

EID: 72649085696     PISSN: 09628436     EISSN: 14712970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0120     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Abbott, D. H. 1984 Behavioral and physiological suppression of fertility in subordinate marmoset monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 6, 169-186. (doi:10.1002/ajp.1350060305)
2. Abbott, D. H. 1993 Social conflict and reproductive suppression in marmosets and tamarin monkeys. In Primate social conflict (eds W. A. Mason & S. P. Mendoza), pp. 331-372. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
3. Alexander, R. D., Nonan, K. M. & Crespi, B. J. 1991 The evolution of eusociality. In The biology of the naked mole-rat (eds P. W Sherman, J. U. M. Jarvis & R. D. Alexander), pp. 3-44. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
4. Andersson, M. 1994 Sexual selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
5. Arnold, K. E. & Owens, I. P. F. 1998 Cooperative breeding in birds: a comparative test of the life history hypothesis. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 739-745. (doi:10.1098/rspb. 1998.0355)
6. Beekman, M. & Ratnieks, F. L. W. 2003 Power and reproduction in insect societies. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 258, 1741-1753. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1262)
7. Beekman, M., Komdeur, J. & Ratnieks, F. L. W. 2003 Reproductive conflicts in social animals-who has power? Trends Ecol. Evol. 18, 277-282. (doi:10.1016/ SO 169-5347(03)00068-5) (Pubitemid 36631747)
8. Bennett, N. C. & Faulkes, C. G. 2000 African mole-rats: ecology and eusoiality. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
9. Bennett, P. M. & Owens, I. P. F. 2002 Evolutionary ecology of birds. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
10. Bertram, B. C. R. 1978 Living in groups: predators and prey. In Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach (eds J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies), pp. 64-96. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
11. Blumstein, D. T. & Moller, A. P. 2008 Is sociality associated with high longevity in North American birds? Biol. Lett. 4, 146-148. (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0606)
12. Boomsma, J. J. 2007 Kin selection versus sexual selection: why the ends do not meet. Curr. Biol. 17, R673-R683. (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2007.06.033)
13. Boomsma, J. J. 2009 Lifetime monogamy and the evolution of eusociality. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 3191-3207. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0101)
14. Bourke, A. F. G. 1999 Colony size, social complexity and reproductive conflict in social insects. J. Evol. Biol. 12, 245-257. (doi:10.1046/j.1420- 9101.1999.00028.x)
15. Bourke, A. F. G. 2007 Kin selection and the evolutionary theory of aging. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 38, 103-128. (doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206. 095528)
16. Bowles, S. & Gintis, H. 2003 Origins of human cooperation. In Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation (ed. P. Hammerstein), pp. 420-443. Berlin, Germany: Dahlem University Press.
17. Boyd, R. & Richerson, P. J. 2009 Culture and the evolution of human cooperation. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 3281-3288. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0134)
18. Bradbury, J. W & Vehrencamp, S. L. 1976 Social organization and foraging in emballonurid bats. I Field studies. Behav. Ecol. Soiobiol. 1, 337-381. (doi:10.1007/ BF00299399)
19. Bradbury, J. W. & Vehrencamp, S. L. 1977 Social organization and foraging in emballonurid bats. III Mating systems. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2, 1-17. (doi:10.1007/ BF00299284)
20. Braude, S. T. 1991 The behaviour and demographics of the naked mole-rat Heterocephalus glaber. PhD thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
21. Brett, R. A. 1991 The population structure of naked mole-rat colonies. In The biology of the naked mole-rat (eds P. W. Sherman, J. U. M. Jarvis & R. D. Alexander), pp. 97-136. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
22. Buffenstein, R. & Pinto, M. 2009 Endocrine function in naturally long-living small mammals. Mol. Cell Endocrinol 299, 101-111. (doi:10.1016/j.mce.2008.04.021)
23. Burland, T. M., Bennett, N. C., Jarvis, J. U. M. & Faulkes, C. G. 2004 Colony structure and parentage in wild colonies of cooperatively breeding Damaraland mole-rats suggest incest avoidance alone may not maintain reproductive skew. Mol. Ecol. 13, 2371-2379. (doi:10.1111/ j.1365-294X.2004. 02233.x)
24. Carey, J. R. 2001 Demographic mechanisms for the evolution of long life in social insects. Exp. Gerontol. 36, 713-722. (doi:10.1016/S0531-5565(00)00237- 0)
25. Clarke, A. L., Saether, B. E. & Roskaft, E. 1997 Sex biases in avian dispersal: a reappraisal. Oikos 79, 429-438. (doi: 10. 2307/3546885)
26. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1983 Selection in relation to sex. In Evolution from molecules to men (ed. B. J. Bendall), pp. 457-481. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
27. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1989a Female transfer and inbreeding avoidance in social mammals. Nature 337, 70-71. (doi:10.1038/337070a0)
28. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1989b Female transfer, male tenure and inbreeding avoidance in social mammals. Nature 337, 70-72. (doi:10.1038/337070a0)
29. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1989c Mammalian mating systems. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 236, 339-372. (doi:10.1098/rspb. 1989.0027)
30. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1998 Reproductive skew: disentangling concessions from control. A reply to Emlen and Reeve. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13, 459. (doi: 10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01470-0)
31. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2006 Cooperative breeding in mammals. In Cooperation in primates and humans (eds P. M. Kappeler & C. P. Van Schaik), pp. 173-190. Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag.
32. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2007 Sexual selection in males and females. Science 318, 1882-1885. (doi:10.1126/science. 1133311)
33. Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2009 Sexual selection in females. Anim. Behav. 77, 3-11 (doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.08.026)
34. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. 1977 Primate ecology and social organization. J. Zool. 183, 1-39.
35. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Harvey, P. H. 1978 Mammals, resources and reproductive strategies. Nature 273, 191-195. (doi:10.1038/273191a0)
36. Clutton-Brock, T. & Isvaran, K. 2007 Sex differences in ageing in natural populations of vertebrates. Proc. R. Soc. B 274, 3097-3104. (doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1138) (Pubitemid 350220153)
37. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Mcauliffe, K. 2009 Female mate choice in mammals. Q. Rev. Biol. 84, 3-27. (doi: 10. 1086/596461)
38. Clutton-Brock, T. H. & Parker, G. A. 1995 Sexual coercion in animal societies. Anim. Behav. 49, 1345-1365. (doi:10.1006/anbe.1995.0166)
39. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Albon, S. D., Gibson, R. M. & Guinness, F. E. 1979 The logical stag: adaptive aspects of fighting in red deer (Cervus elaphus L.). Anim. Behav. 27, 211-225. (doi:10.1016/0003-3472(79)90141-6)
40. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Albon, S. D. & Guinness, F. E. 1982a Competition between female relatives in a matrilocal mammal. Nature 300, 178-180. (doi:10.1038/300178a0)
41. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Guinness, F. E. & Albon, S. D. 1982b Red Deer: the behaviour and ecology of two sexes. Edinburgh, UK: University Press.
42. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Albon, S. D. & Guinness, F. E. 1984 Maternal dominance, breeding success and birth sex ratios in red deer. Nature 308, 358-360. (doi:10.1038/ 308358a0)
43. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Albon, S. D. & Guinness, F. E. 1985 Parental investment and sex differences in juvenile mortality in birds and mammals. Nature 313, 131-133. (doi:10.1038/313131a0)
44. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Deutsch, J. C. & Nefdt, R. J. C. 1993 The evolution of ungulate leks. Anim. Behav. 46, 1121-1138. (doi:10.1006/anbe.1993. 1302)
45. Clutton-Brock, T. H. et al. 1998a Costs of cooperative behaviour in suricates Suricata suricatta. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 185-190. (doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0281)
46. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Brotherton, P. N. M., Smith, R., Mcilrath, G., Kansky, R., Gaynor, D., O'Riain, M. J. & Skinner, J. D. 1998b Infanticide and expulsion of females in a cooperative mammal. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 265, 2291-2295. (doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0573) (Pubitemid 28561171)
47. Clutton-Brock, T. H. et al. 2001a Cooperation, conflict and concession in meerkat groups. Science 291, 478-481. (doi:10.1126/science.291.5503.478)
48. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Russell, A. F., Sharpe, L., Brotherton, P. N. M., Mcilrath, G. M., White, S. & Cameron, E. Z. 2001b Effects of helpers on juvenile development and survival in meerkats. Science 293, 2446-2449. (doi:10.1126/science.1061274) (Pubitemid 32917324)
49. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Russell, A. F., Sharpe, L. L., Young, A. J., Balmforth, Z. & Mcilrath, G. M. 2002 Evolution and development of sex differences in cooperative behavior in meerkats. Science 297, 253-256. (doi:10.1126/science. 1071412)
50. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Hodge, S. J., Spong, G., Russell, A. F., Jordan, N. R., Bennett, N. C. & Manser, M. B. 2006 Intrasexual competition and sexual selection in cooperative meerkats. Nature 444, 1065-1068. (doi:10. 1038/nature05386) (Pubitemid 46018525)
51. Clutton-Brock, T. H., Hodge, S. J. & Flower, T. P. 2008 Group size and the suppression of subordinate reproduction in Kalahari meerkats. Anim. Behav. 76, 689-700. (doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.03.015).
52. Cooney, R. & Bennett, N. C. 2000 Incest avoidance and reproductive skew in a cooperative mammal. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 267, 801-806. (doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1074) (Pubitemid 30229372)
53. Courchamp, F., Woodroffe, R. & Roemer, G. W. 2003 Removing protected populations to save endangered species. Science 302, 1532-1532. (doi:10.1126/science. 1089492)
54. Creel, S. & Creel, N. M. 2001 The African wild dog: behavior, ecology and conservation. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
55. Creel, S. R. & Waser, P. M. 1997 Variation in reproductive suppression among dwarf mongooses: interplay between mechanisms and evolution. In Cooperative breeding in mammals (eds N. G. Solomon & J. A. French), pp. 150-170. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
56. Crook, J. H., Ellis, J. E. & Goss-Custard, J. D. 1976 Mammalian social systems: structure and function. Anim. Behav. 24, 261-274. (doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(76)80035-8)
57. Dammann, P. & Burda, H. 2006 Sexual activity and reproduction delay ageing in a mammal. Curr. Biol. 16, R117-R118. (doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.02.012) (Pubitemid 43259333)
58. Darwin, C. 1871/1958 The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. New York, NY: The Modern Library.
59. Digby, L. 2000 Infanticide by female mammals: implication for the evolution of social systems. In Infanticide by males (eds C. P. V. Schaik & C. H. Jansen), pp. 423-446. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
60. Digby, L. J., Ferrari, S. F. & Saltzman, W. 2007 Callitrichines: the role of competition in cooperatively breeding species. In Primates in perspective (eds C. J. Campbell & E. Al), pp. 85-106. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
61. Dittus, W. J. P. 1979 The evolution of behavior regulating density and age-specific sex ratios in a primate population. Behaviour 69, 265-301. (doi:10.1163/156853979X00511)
62. Donald, P. F. 2007 Adult sex ratios in wild bird populations. Ibis 149, 671-692. (doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2007. 00724.x)
63. Dugatkin, L. A. 1997 Cooperation among animals: an evolutionary perspective. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
64. Ebensperger, L. A. 1998a Strategies and counter-strategies to infanticide in mammals. Biological Review 73, 321-346. (doi:10.1017/S0006323198005209)
65. Ebensperger, L. A. 1998b Do female rodents use promiscuity to prevent male infanticide? Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 10, 129-141.
66. Emlen, S. T. 1991 Evolution of cooperative breeding in birds and mammals. In Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach (eds J. R. Krebs & N. B. Davies), pp. 301-337, 3rd edn. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
67. Faulkes, C. G. & Abbott, D. H. 1997 The physiology of a reproductive dictatorship: regulation of male and female reproduction by a single breeding female in colonies of naked mole-rats. In Cooperative breeding in mammals (eds N. G. Solomon & J. A. French), pp. 302-334. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
68. Faulkes, C. G. & Bennett, N. C. 2007 African mole-rats social and ecological diversity. In Rodent societies (eds J. O. Wolff & P. W. Sherman). Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
69. Faulkes, C. G., Bennett, N. C., Bruford, M. W, O'Brien, H. P., Aguilar, G. H. & Jarvis, J. U. M. 1997 Ecological constraints drive social evolution in the African mole-rat. Proc. R Soc. Lond. B 264, 1619-1627. (doi:10.1098/rspb.1997.0226)
70. French, J. A. 1997 Proximate regulation of singular breeding in callitrichid primates. In Cooperative breeding in mammals (eds N. G. Solomon & J. A. French), pp. 34-75. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
71. Gardner, A. & Grafen, A. 2009 Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation. J. Evol. Biol. 22, 659-671. (doi:10.1111/j.1420- 9101.2008.01681.x)
72. Gartlan, J. S. 1968 Sturcture and function in primate society. Folia Primatol. 8, 89-120. (doi:10.1159/000155138)
73. Girman, D. J., Mills, M. G. L., Geffen, E. & Wayne, R. K. 1997 A molecular genetic analysis of social structure, dispersal, and interpack relationships of the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 40, 187-198. (doi:10.1007/s002650050332) (Pubitemid 27185156)
74. Gittleman, J. L. 1989 Carnivore group living: comparative trends. In Carnivore behaviour, ecology and evolution (ed. J. L. Gittleman), pp. 183-207. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
75. Goldizen, A. W. 1987a Facultative polyandry and the role of infant carrying in wild saddle-back tamarins (Saguinus fusicollis). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 20, 99-109. (doi:10.1007/BF00572631)
76. Goldizen, A. W. 1987b Tamarins and marmosets: communal care of offspring. In Primate societies (eds B. B. Smutz & E. Al), pp. 34-43, Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
77. Goldizen, A. W. 2003 Social monogamy and its variations in callitrichids: do these relate to the costs of infant care? In Monogamy, (ed. C. Boesch), pp. 232-247. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
78. Greenwood, P. J. 1980 Mating systems, philopatry and dispersal in birds and mammals. Anim. Behav. 28, 1140-1162. (doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80103-5)
79. Griffin, A. S., Pemberton, J. M., Brotherton, P. N. M., Gaynor, D. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2003 A genetic analysis of breeding success in the cooperative meerkat (Suricata suricatta). Behav. Ecol. 14, 472-480. (doi:10. 1093/beheco/arg040)
80. Grafen, A. 2009 Formalizing Darwinism and inclusive fitness theory. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 3135-3141. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0056)
81. Hamilton, W. D. 1964 The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. II. J. Theor. Biol. 7, 1-52. (doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4)
82. Harcourt, A. H., Harvey, P. H., Larson, S. G. & Short, R. V. 1981 Testis weight, body weight and breeding system in primates. Nature 293, 55-57. (doi:10.1038/293055a0)
83. Hart, A. G. & Ratnieks, F. L. W. 2005 Crossing the taxonomie divide: conflict and its resolution in societies of reproductively totipotent individuals. J. Evol. BioL 13, 383-395. (doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2004.00832.x)
84. Hauber, M. E. & Lacey, E. A. 2005 Bateman's principle in cooperatively breeding vertebrates: the effects of nonbreeding alloparents on variability in female and male reproductive success. Integr. Comp. Biol. 45, 903-914. (doi:10.1093/icb/45.5.903)
85. Helanterä, H. & Bargum, K. 2007 Pedigree relatedness, not greenbeard genes, explains eusociality. Oikos 116, 217-220. (doi:10.1111/j.0030- 1299.2007.15411.x) (Pubitemid 46146497)
86. Heyman, E. W. 2003 Monogamy in New World primates: what can patterns of olfactory communication tell us? In Monogamy (ed. C. Boesch), pp. 248-261. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
87. Hodge, S. J. 2003 Evolution of helping in a communal breeder: the banded mongoose. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge.
88. Hodge, S. J. 2009 Understanding variation in reproductive skew: directions for future empirical research. In Reproductive skew in vertebrates: proximate and ultimate causes (eds R. Hager & C. B. Jones), pp. 439-466. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
89. Hodge, S. J., Manica, A., Flower, T. P. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2008 Determinants of reproductive success in dominant female meerkats. J. Anim. Ecol. 11, 92-102. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01318.x) (Pubitemid 350295759)
90. Holekamp, K. E. & Swale, L. 2000 Feisty females and meek males: reproductive strategies in the spotted hyena. In Reproduction in context (eds K. Wallen & J. Schneider), pp. 257-285. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
91. Holekamp, K. E., Smale, L. & Szykman, M. 1996 Rank and reproduction in the female spotted hyena. J. Reprod Fetil. 108, 229-237. (Pubitemid 27037768)
92. Hoogland, J. L. 1995 In The black-tailed prairie dog: social life of a burrowing mammal. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
93. Hrdy, S. B. 1977 The Langurs of Abu: female and male strategies of reproduction. Harvard, MA: University Press.
94. Jarman, P. J. 1974 The social organisation of antelope in relation to their ecology. Behaviour 48, 215-267. (doi:10.1163/156853974X00345)
95. Jarvis, J. U. M. 1991a Reproduction in naked mole-rats. In The biology of the naked mole-rat (eds P. W. Sherman, J. U. M. Jarvis & R. D. Alexander), pp. 384-425. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
96. Keller, L. 2009 Adaptation and the genetics of social behaviour. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 3209-3216. (doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0108)
97. Keller, L. & Nonacs, P. 1993 The role of queen pheromones in social insects: queen control or queen signal? Anim. Behav. 45, 787-794. (doi:10.1006/anbe.1993.1092) (Pubitemid 223020848)
98. Kitchen, D. M. & Packer, C. R. 1999 Complexity in vertebrate societies. In Levels of selection in evolution (ed. L. Keller), pp. 176-196. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
99. Kleiman, D. G. 1977 Monogamy in mammals. Q. Rev. Biol. 52, 39-69.
100. Koenig, W. & Haydock, J. 2004 Incest and incest avoidance. In Ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds (eds W. Koenig & J. L. Dickinson), pp. 142-156. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
101. Krebs, J. R. & Davies, N. B. 1993 An introduction to behavioural ecology, 3rd edn. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific.
102. Kropotkin, P. 1908 Mutual aid. London, UK: William Heinneman.
103. Kutsukake, N. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2006 Aggression and submission reflect reproductive conflict between females in cooperatively breeding meerkats Suricata suricatta. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 59, 541-548. (doi:10.1007/s00265- 005-0079-7) (Pubitemid 43117663)
104. Lack, D. 1968 Ecological adaptation for breeding in birds. London, UK: Methuen.
105. Lewis, S. E. & Pusey, A. E. 1997 Factors influencing the occurrence of communal care in plural breeding mammals. In Cooperative breeding in mammals (eds N. G. Solomon & J. A. French), pp. 335-363. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
106. Mcnab, B. K. 1980 Food habits, energetics and the population biology of mammals. Am. Nat. 116, 106-124. (doi:10.1086/283614)
107. Moehlman, P. D. 1986 Ecology of cooperation in canids. In Ecological aspects of social evolution in birds and mammals (eds D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham), pp. 282-302. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
108. Moehlman, P. D. & Hofer, H. 1997 Cooperative breeding, reproductive suppression and body mass in canids. In Cooperative breeding in mammals (eds N. G. Solomon & J. A. French), pp. 76-128. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
109. Nowak, M. A. 2006 Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science 314, 1560-1565. (doi:10.1126/science.1133755)
110. O'Riain, M. J., Jarvis, J. U. M. & Faulkes, C. G. 1996 A dispersive morph in the naked mole-rat. Nature 380, 619-621. (doi:10.1038/380619a0)
111. O'Riain, M. J., Bennett, N. C., Brotherton, P. N. M., Mcilrath, G. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2000a Reproductive suppression and inbreeding avoidance in wild populations of cooperatively breeding meerkats (Suricata suricatta). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 48, 471-477. (doi:10.1007/s002650000249)
112. O'Riain, M. J., Jarvis, J. U. M., Alexander, R., Buffenstein, R. & Peeters, C. 2000b Morphological castes in a vertebrate. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 13194-13197. (doi:10.1073/pnas.97.24.13194)
113. Packer, C. R., Pusey, A. E. & Eberly, L. E. 2001 Egalitarianism in female African lions. Science 293, 690-693. (doi:10.1126/science.1062320)
114. Parker, G. A. 1974 Assessment strategy and the evolution of fighting behaviour. J. Theor. Biol. 47, 223-243. (doi:10. 1016/0022-5193(74)90111-8)
115. Perez, V. I. et al. 2009 Protein stability and resistance to oxidative stress are determinants of longevity in the longest-living rodent, the naked mole-rat. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. 106, 3059-3064. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0809620106)
116. Radcliffe Brown, A. R. 1952 Structure and friction in primitive society. London, UK: Cohen and West.
117. Ratnieks, F. L. W. & Helanterä, H. 2009 The evolution of extreme altruism and inequality in insect societies. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 364, 3169-3179. (doi:10.1098/rstb. 2009.0129)
118. Ratnieks, F. L. W. & Wenseleers, T. 2008 Altruism in insect societies and beyond: voluntary or enforced? Trends in Ecol. Evol. 23, 45-52. (doi:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.013)
119. Reeve, H. K. & Sherman, P. W. 1991 Intracolonial aggression and nepotism by the breeding female naked mole-rat. In The ecology of the naked mole-rat (eds P. W. Sherman, J. U. M. Jarvis & R. D. Alexander), pp. 337-357. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
120. Richards, A. 1939 Land, labour and diet in Northern Rhodesia: an economic study of the Bemba tribe. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
121. Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R. T. & Henrich, J. 2003 Cultural evolution of human cooperation. In Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation (ed. P. Hammerstein), pp. 357-388. Berlin, Germany: Dahlem.
122. Rood, J. P. 1986 Ecology and social evolution in the mongooses. In Ecological aspects of social evolution (eds D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham), pp. 131-152. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
123. Ross-Gillespie, A., O'Riain, M. J. & Keller, L. F. 2007 Viral epizootic reveal inbreeding depression in a habitually inbreeding mammal. Evolution 61, 2268-2273. (doi:10. 1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00177.x) (Pubitemid 47340759)
124. Russell, A. F. 2004 Mammals: comparisons and contrasts. In Ecology and evolution of cooperative breeding in birds (eds W. Koenig & J. Dickinson), pp. 210-227. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
125. Russell, A. F., Brotherton, P. N. M., Mcilrath, G. M., Sharpe, L. L. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2003a Breeding success in cooperative meerkats: effects of helper number and maternal state. Behav. Ecol. 14, 486-492. (doi:10.1093/beheco/arg022)
126. Russell, A. F., Sharpe, L. L., Brotherton, P. N. M. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2003b Cost minimization by helpers in cooperative vertebrates. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 100, 3333-3338. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0636503100)
127. Russell, A. F., Carlson, A. A., Mcilrath, G. M., Jordan, N. R. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2004 Adapative size modification by dominant female meerkats. Evolution 58, 1600-1607.
128. Scantlebury, M., Speakman, J. R., Oosthuizen, M. K. & Bennett, N. C. 2006 Energetics reveals physiologically distinct castes in a eusocial mammal. Nature 440, 795-797. (doi:10.1038/nature04578)
129. Shellman-Reeve, J. S. 1997 The spectrum of eusociality in termites. In The evolution of social behaviour in insects and arachnids (eds J. C. Choe & B. J. Crespi), pp. 52-93. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
130. Sherman, P. W. & Jarvis, J. U. M. 2002 Extraordinary life spans of naked mole-rats (Heterocephalus glaber). J. Zool. 258, 307-311. (doi:10.1017/S0952836902 001437)
131. Sherman, P. W., Jarvis, J. U. M. & Alexander, R. D. (eds) 1991 The biology of the naked mole-rat. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
132. Sherman, P. W., Lacey, E. A., Reeve, H. W. & Keller, L. 1995 The eusociality continuum. Behav. Ecol. 6, 102-108. (doi:10.1093/beheco/6.1.102)
133. Silk, J. B., Clark-Wheatley, C. B., Rodman, P. S. & Samuels, A. 1981 Differential reproductive success and facultative adjustment of sex ratios among captive female bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Anim. Behav. 29, 1106-1120. (doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80063-2)
134. Silva, M., Brown, J. H. & Downing, J. A. 1997 Differences in population density and energy use between birds and mammals: a macroecological perspective. J. Anim. Ecol. 66, 327-340. (doi:10.2307/5979) (Pubitemid 27218332)
135. Smuts, B. B. & Smuts, R. W. 1993 Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in non-human primates and other mammals: evidence and theoretical implications. Adv. Study Anim. Behav. 22, 1-63. (doi:10.1016/S0065-3454(08) 60404-0)
136. Spong, G. F., Hodge, S. J., Young, A. J. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2008 Factors affecting reproductive success of dominant male meerkats. Mol. Ecol. 17, 2287-2299. (doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03734.x)
137. Trivers, R. L. 1972 Parental investment and sexual selection. In Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871-1971 (ed. B. Campbell), pp. 136-179. Chicago, IL: AldineAtherton.
138. Van Schaik, C. P. 1983 Why are diurnal primates living in groups? Behaviour 87, 120-144. (doi:10.1163/156853983X00147)
139. Van Schaik, C. P. 2000 Infanticide by male primates: the sexual selection hypothesis revisited. In Infanticide by males and its implications (eds C. P. V. Schaik & C. H. Jansen), pp. 27-60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
140. Vaupel, J. W., Baudisch, A., Dolling, M., Roach, D. A. & Gampe, J. 2004 The case for negative senescence. Theor. Popul. Biol. 65, 339-351.
141. Wade, M. J. & Arnold, S. J. 1980 The intensity of sexual selection in relation to male behaviour, female choice and sperm precedence. Anim. Behav. 28, 446-461. (doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(80)80052-2)
142. Walters, J. R. & Seyfarth, R. M. 1986 Conflict and cooperation. In Primate societies, (eds B. B. Smuts, D. L. Cheney, R. M. Seyfarth, R. W. Wrangham & T. T. Struhsaker), pp. 306-317. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
143. Waser, P. M., Elliott, L. F., Creel, N. M. & Creel, S. R. 1995 Habitat variation and mongoose demography. In Serengeti II: dynamics, management and conservation of an ecosystem (eds A. R. E. Sinclair & P. Arcese), pp. 421-447. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press.
144. West, S. A., Griffin, A. S. & Gardner, A. 2007a Evolutionary explanations for cooperation. Curr. Biol. 17, R661-R672.
145. West, S. A., Griffin, A. S. & Gardiner, A. 2007b Social semantics: how useful has group selection been? J. Evol. Biol. 21, 374-385.
146. West, S. A., Griffin, A. S. & Gardiner, A. 2007c Social semantics: altruism, cooperation, mutualism, strong reciprocity and group selection. J. Evol. Biol. 20, 415-432. (doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006.01258.x)
147. West-Eberhard, M. J. 1975 The evolution of social behaviour by kin selection. Q. Rev. Biol. 50, 1-35. (doi:10.1086/408298)
148. West-Eberhard, M. J. 1981 Intra-group selection and the evolution of insect societies. In Natural selection and social behavior (eds R. A. Alexander & D. W. Tinkle), pp. 3-17. New York, NY: Chiron Press.
149. Wilson, D. S. & Wilson, E. O. 2007 Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology. Q. Rev. Biol. 82, 327-348. (doi:10.1086/522809)
150. Woolfenden, G. E. & Fitzpatrick, J. W. 1984 The Florida scrub jay: demography of a cooperative-breeding bird. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
151. Wrangham, R. W. 1980 An ecological model of femalebonded primate groups. Behaviour 75, 262-300. (doi:10.1163/156853980X00447)
152. Wright, J., Malkakov, A. A. & Khazin, V. 2000 Statedependent sentinels: an experimental study in the Arabian babbler. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 268, 821-826. (doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1574) (Pubitemid 32391650)
153. Wynne-Edwards, V. C. 1962 In Animal dispersion in relation to social behaviour. Edinburgh, UK: Oliver and Boyd.
154. Young, A. J. & Clutton-Brock, T. H. 2006 Infanticide by subordinates influences reproductive sharing in cooperatively breeding meerkats. Biol. Lett. 2, 385-387. (doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0463)
155. Young, A. J., Carlson, A. A., Monfort, S. L., Russell, A. F., Bennett, N. C. & Clutton-Brock, T. 2006 Stress and the suppression of subordinate reproduction in cooperatively breeding meerkats. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 103, 12 005-12010. (doi:10.1073/pnas.0510038103)