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Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 517-556

Apologies in international politics

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EID: 70449719193     PISSN: 09636412     EISSN: 15561852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09636410903132987     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (28)

References (224)
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    • Note
    • For a statement to be apologetic it must admit perpetrating the crime and convey remorse. Reparations must specify an act for which the victims are being compensated. I treat the existence of war crimes trials as apologetic because the state typically asserts that individuals were complicit in heinous acts (admission) and that these acts should be punished (remorse). If, in a given case, the trials produce widespread acquittals, then perhaps they should not qualify as apologetic (this did not occur in the cases examined here).
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    • Note
    • I define capabilities both in terms of power and constraints. "Power" incorporates wealth, population, defense expenditures, and standing military forces. "Constraints" includes factors that prevent a state from bringing its power to bear (an occupier, offshore balancer, or the threat from a third party).
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    • Note
    • The selection of these cases, however, may introduce other elements of bias into the study. Because German and Japanese crimes were so egregious, this study may understate the palliative effect of contrition. However, as the case studies demonstrate, Franco-German reconciliation occurred prior to Germany's contrition, suggesting that even terrible violence does not impede reconciliation.
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    • Note
    • The early phase begins in 1952 when the U.S. occupation ended, and Japan regained sovereignty.
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    • Perception of History and Japan-Korea Relations
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    • These views were echoed by other Japanese officials and by official government histories of the colonial era. Yoshibumi Wakamiya, The Postwar Conservative View of Asia: How the Political Right Has Delayed Japan's Coming to Terms with Its History of Aggression in Asia (Tokyo: LTCB International Library Foundation, 1999)
    • These views were echoed by other Japanese officials and by official government histories of the colonial era. Yoshibumi Wakamiya, The Postwar Conservative View of Asia: How the Political Right Has Delayed Japan's Coming to Terms with Its History of Aggression in Asia (Tokyo: LTCB International Library Foundation, 1999).
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    • Tokyo established an annual ceremony on the day of the surrender to honor the nation's war dead. Herbert P. Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), 658
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    • Note
    • Revealingly, the main national memorials to the war are at Hiroshima, the site of annual commemoration ceremonies every 6 August (.)
  • 57
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    • Japan paid grants to Burma (1955), the Philippines (1956), Indonesia (1958), South Vietnam (1959), and Thailand (1963). James Morley, Japan and Korea (New York: Walker, 1965). On forced labor, see William Underwood, "Mitsubishi, Historical Revisionism and Japanese Corporate Resistance to Chinese Forced Labor Redress," Japan Focus, 8 February 2006
    • Japan paid grants to Burma (1955), the Philippines (1956), Indonesia (1958), South Vietnam (1959), and Thailand (1963). James Morley, Japan and Korea (New York: Walker, 1965). On forced labor, see William Underwood, "Mitsubishi, Historical Revisionism and Japanese Corporate Resistance to Chinese Forced Labor Redress," Japan Focus, 8 February 2006, http://www.japanfocus.org/-William-Underwood/1823.
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    • Bix, Hirohito, 652.
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    • Note
    • On coverage of the apology, see Jennifer Lind, Sorry States: Apologies in International Politics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008), chap. 2. On reparations
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    • Wakamiya, The Postwar Conservative View of Asia, 194. Japan paid US$300 million in outright grants, US$200 million in government loans, and US$300 million in private commercial credits. At the time, US$800 million represented more than 25 percent of South Korean GDP. The World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI) 2004.
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    • The Postwar Conservative View of Asia, 11. See also "Outspoken Tokyo Minister Resigns
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    • Note
    • Japanese apologies-of varying levels of admission and remorse-during this period include statements by Emperor Akihito and prime minister Kaifu Toshiki in 1989, prime minister Miyazawa Kiichi in 1992, and prime minister Murayama Tomiichi in 1994 and 1995.
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    • The 1998 Joint Communique included a Japanese apology, South Korean acceptance of Japan's apology, and a pledge by both states to move forward. Wakamiya, The Postwar Conservative View of Asia, 256-58.
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    • Note
    • PM Koizumi Visit ROK President Kim Dae-jung; Protesters Rage," Mainichi Shimbun, 15 October 2001. Koizumi apologized again in April 2005.
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    • Note
    • The "Asian Women's Fund" uses a combination of private and public funds to give each survivor approximately US$17,000. C. Sarah Soh, "Japan's Responsibility toward Comfort Women Survivors"
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    • (working paper, Japan Policy Research Institute, 2001). For criticism, see Norma Field, "The Stakes of Apology," Japan Quarterly 42, no. 4 (October-December 1995). See the series Japan in Modern History (Tokyo: International Society for Educational Information, 1996)
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    • Yasukuni Museum Tugs at Heartstrings to Keep Military Memories Alive
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    • President Rhee to President Eisenhower, 29 December 1954, in Foreign Relations of the United States, Korea, VOL. 15, 1952-1954, part 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1984), 1937-41 (hereafter cited as FRUS Korea).
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    • Rhee argued that Japan was "a great menace than the communists." President Rhee, quoted in "The Recent and Prospective Foreign Relations of Japan (1956-61)," Declassified Documents Collection, Office of Intelligence Research, Intelligence Report no. 7331, Department of State, 12 September 1956, 10.
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    • Future of Korea-Japan Relations
    • Nam Si-uk, "Future of Korea-Japan Relations," Korea Focus 3, no. 6 (1995): 28.
    • (1995) Korea Focus , vol.3 , Issue.6 , pp. 28
    • Si-Uk, N.1
  • 101
    • 70449718526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Japan's View of History," Korea Herald, 7 May 1994. In a 1996 survey, Korean respondents described their feelings toward seventeen countries on a scale from zero (dislike) to 100 (like). Japan was ranked second to last (41), above North Korea (27), in the company of Libya and Iran
  • 102
    • 84869666478 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Korea and Japan: Engaged but Distant
    • Robert Dujarric (Washington, DC: Hudson Institute, In 2001, Koreans reported that the countries they disliked the most were Japan (63 percent), followed by North Korea (11 percent), the United States (7 percent), and China (3 percent). Chun-ang Ilbo newspaper poll, 21 September 2001, (accessed October 2001)
    • Sook-jong Lee, "Korea and Japan: Engaged but Distant," in The Future of Korea-Japan Relations, ED. Robert Dujarric (Washington, DC: Hudson Institute, 2002),102. In 2001, Koreans reported that the countries they disliked the most were Japan (63 percent), followed by North Korea (11 percent), the United States (7 percent), and China (3 percent). Chun-ang Ilbo newspaper poll, 21 September 2001, http://bric.postech.ac.kr/bbs/daily/krnews (accessed October 2001).
    • (2002) The Future of Korea-Japan Relations, ED , pp. 102
    • Lee, S.-J.1
  • 104
    • 70449720324 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Civic Group Calls for Mori's Apology for His Remarks on Tokdo
    • 6 October 2000, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea
    • "Civic Group Calls for Mori's Apology for His Remarks on Tokdo," Yonhap Wire Service, 6 October 2000, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea.
    • Yonhap Wire Service
  • 105
    • 70449731892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Japan's Absurd Claim on Tokdo Island
    • Dong-a Ilbo, 11 February 1996
    • "Japan's Absurd Claim on Tokdo Island," Dong-a Ilbo, 11 February 1996, trans. in Korea Focus 4, no. 1 (1996): 97-98.
    • (1996) Trans. in Korea Focus , vol.4 , Issue.1 , pp. 97-98
  • 106
    • 70449703034 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoted in Lee, Japan and Korea
    • President Rhee, quoted in Lee, Japan and Korea, 37.
    • , vol.37
    • Rhee, P.1
  • 107
    • 70449703032 scopus 로고
    • 21 December 1955, quoted in Kwan Bong Kim, The Korea-Japan Treaty Crisis and the Instability of the Korean Political System (New York: Praeger
    • President Rhee, letter published in Mainichi Shinbun, 21 December 1955, quoted in Kwan Bong Kim, The Korea-Japan Treaty Crisis and the Instability of the Korean Political System (New York: Praeger, 1971),44.
    • (1971) Letter published in Mainichi Shinbun , pp. 44
    • Rhee, P.1
  • 109
    • 70449708709 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • See articles in A New Era in Korea-Japan Relations.
  • 110
    • 70449731895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Kim, The Korea-Japan Treaty Crisis.
  • 111
    • 84869686558 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Foreign Ministers' Meeting with Japan Postponed
    • Yonhap Wire Service, 8 September 1986, Prime Minister Roh Shin-yong emphasized that the problem was not Fujio, specifically, but Japanese attitudes more broadly. "No Sing-yong, NKDP Discuss Fujio Remarks," Yonhap Wire Service, 11 September 1986, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea
    • "Foreign Ministers' Meeting with Japan Postponed," Yonhap Wire Service, 8 September 1986, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea. Prime Minister Roh Shin-yong emphasized that the problem was not Fujio, specifically, but Japanese attitudes more broadly. "No Sing-yong, NKDP Discuss Fujio Remarks," Yonhap Wire Service, 11 September 1986, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea.
    • Trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea
  • 114
    • 70449705628 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "What is Required Is to Immediately Take Corrective Action," Hanguk Ilbo, 5 August 1982; "'Stronger' Reaction Urged," Yonhap Wire Service, 3 August 1982, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea; "Rallies Protest Textbooks," Yonhap Wire Service, 5 August 1982, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea; "Rallies Protest Textbooks," Korea Herald, 11 August 1982.
  • 116
    • 70449697646 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter to the Korean People
    • 25 March 2005
    • Roh Moo-hyun, "Letter to the Korean People," Korea.net, 25 March 2005.
    • Korea.net
    • Moo-Hyun, R.1
  • 117
    • 70449699405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Editorial," Chungang Ilbo, 22 April 2002, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea, 23 April 2002. Koreans were so embittered by Koizumi's visit to the shrine and by the textbook crisis, they ignored his remarkable apology in October after his shrine visit. See "Diplomacy with Japan," Choson Ilbo, 15 October 2001. For other coverage of the Yasukuni issu, see "S. Korea's ruling party holds rally to protest Yasukuni visit," Kyodo News Service, 17 August 2001, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: Japan; "Civic Groups Voice Opposition to Koizumi Visit," Yonhap Wire Service, 24 February 2003; Jonathan Watts, "Japan's Asian Neighbors Outraged by Junichiro Koizumi's Custom-Breaking Tribute," The Guardian, 14 August 2001.
  • 118
    • 70449705622 scopus 로고
    • Japanese Diet Should Clarify Responsibility for Past Atrocities
    • Dong-a Ilbo, 7 May 1994
    • "Japanese Diet Should Clarify Responsibility for Past Atrocities," Dong-a Ilbo, 7 May 1994, trans. in Korea Focus 2, no. 3 (1994): 142-43.
    • (1994) Trans. in Korea Focus , vol.2 , Issue.3 , pp. 142-43
  • 119
    • 70449708708 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Why is Japan Distrusted?
    • 8 May 1995
    • Kim Kyong-min, "Why is Japan Distrusted?" Dong-a Ilbo, 8 May 1995.
    • Dong-a Ilbo
    • Kyong-Min, K.1
  • 120
    • 84869669661 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Koreans were particularly incensed about Watanabe Michio's statements. See 6 June 1995 editorials cited in "Watanabe Remarks on Japan Colonial Rule Decried," trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea, 7 June 1995
    • Hahnkyu Park, "Between Caution and Cooperation: The ROK-Japan Security Relationship in the Post-Cold War Period," Korea Institute of Defense Analysis, http://www.kida.re.kr/english/ journal/park.htm. Koreans were particularly incensed about Watanabe Michio's statements. See 6 June 1995 editorials cited in "Watanabe Remarks on Japan Colonial Rule Decried," trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea, 7 June 1995.
    • Between Caution and Cooperation: The ROK-Japan Security Relationship in the Post-Cold War Period," Korea Institute of Defense Analysis
    • Park, H.1
  • 121
    • 70449705626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Japan Attempts to Whitewash its Past," Korea Herald, 15 September 2000; "Teaching Sadistic History?" Korea Herald, 22 February 2001
  • 122
    • 70449697644 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Counting on Japan's Sense of Right and Wrong
    • 8 June 2001 trans. in Korea Focus
    • Shin Il-Chul, "Counting on Japan's Sense of Right and Wrong," Dong-a Ilbo, 8 June 2001, trans. in Korea Focus 9, no. 4 (2001): 15-16
    • (2001) Dong-a Ilbo , vol.9 , Issue.4 , pp. 15-16
    • Il-Chul, S.1
  • 123
    • 70449731894 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Rocky Relations with Japan," Chungang Ilbo, 9 July 2001, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea, 10 July 2001.
  • 124
    • 84869686559 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Letter to the Korean People
    • See also "Japanese Foreign Minister Scolded for History Comments, 25 April 2005
    • Roh A, "Letter to the Korean People." See also "Japanese Foreign Minister Scolded for History Comments," Yonhap Wire Service, 25 April 2005.
    • Yonhap Wire Service
    • Roh, A.1
  • 125
    • 70449705625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Japan Attempts to Whitewash its Past"; "Teaching Sadistic History?"
  • 127
    • 70449701211 scopus 로고
    • President Eisenhower, 29 December 1954, 1952-1954, (Washington, DC: GPO
    • President Rhee to President Eisenhower, 29 December 1954, in FRUS Korea, VOL. 15, 1952-1954, part 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1984), 1937-41.
    • (1984) FRUS Korea , vol.15 , Issue.PART. 2 , pp. 1937-41
    • Rhee, P.1
  • 128
    • 70449708707 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Robertson), memorandum to the Secretary of State, no. 665, FRUS China/Japan, VOL. 15, 1952-1954, part 2 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1985), 1465-69
  • 129
    • 70449703033 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • For example, Japan's move to patrol the sea lanes out to 1,000 miles was called "a positive re- sponse" to burden-sharing pressures from Washington. Korea Herald, 10 May 1981. A former Ministry of National Defense (MND) official wrote that in this period "a phenomenal expansion in Korean-Japanese mil- itary contacts is noticeable." Yong-Ok Park, Korean-Japanese-American Triangle: Problems and Prospects (RAND Report P-7138, September 1985), 14. For details of Japanese-Korean cooperation in this period, see Victor D. Cha, Alignment Despite Antagonism: The US-Korea-Japan Security Triangle (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999).
  • 130
    • 70449724346 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Regarding the strength of the U.S.-Japan alliance, in 1997 the United States and Japan signed the Guidelines for Defense Cooperation, and Japan later became a more active participant in U.S. military operations, such as the U.S. occupation in Iraq. Elizabeth Becker, "Bush to Face Asian Fears of New U.S. Unilateralism," New York Times, 17 October 2003. Regarding Korean threat perception, I assessed this in part through interviews conducted in South Korea in 2000 and 2001. A common sentiment was expressed by an MND official, who said, "Certainly I don't see Japan as a threat today." Interview with the director of the MND's study group on military modernization, Ministry of National Defense, Seoul, October 2000.
  • 134
    • 70449729134 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • On Korean support for Japan's expanded military role in the 1980s
  • 135
    • 70449716698 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Japan's Defense Capability and Defense Policy
    • (Winter 1983)
    • Sang-il Han, "Japan's Defense Capability and Defense Policy," Korea and World Affairs 7, no. 4 (Winter 1983): 677-709
    • Korea and World Affairs , vol.7 , Issue.4 , pp. 677-709
    • Han, S.-I.1
  • 136
    • 84965626333 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Korea-Japan Relations and Japan's Security Role
    • (Spring 1988). For Korea's support in the 1990s, see "ROK Foreign Ministry Welcomes U.S.-Japan
    • Chongwhi Kim, "Korea-Japan Relations and Japan's Security Role," Korea and World Affairs 12, no. 1 (Spring 1988). For Korea's support in the 1990s, see "ROK Foreign Ministry Welcomes U.S.-Japan
    • Korea and World Affairs , vol.12 , Issue.1
    • Kim, C.1
  • 137
    • 70449714876 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Security Declaration," Yonhap Wire Service, 18 April 1996, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: South Korea; Han Sung-joo, "New U.S.-Japan Security Ties," Dong-a Ilbo, 28 April 1996; Kim Woo-sang, "New U.S.-Japan Defense Guidelines," Joong-ang Ilbo, 12 June 1997, trans. in Korea Focus 5, no. 4 (1997).
  • 138
    • 70449708706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "ROK Foreign Ministry Welcomes U.S.-Japan Security Declaration."
  • 139
    • 70449716695 scopus 로고
    • A Review of Korea-Japan Relations
    • February 1995, trans. in Korea Focus
    • Rhee Kyu-ho, "A Review of Korea-Japan Relations," Shin Dong-A Monthly, February 1995, trans. in Korea Focus 3, no. 2 (1995): 21.
    • (1995) Shin Dong-A Monthly , vol.3 , Issue.2 , pp. 21
    • Kyu-Ho, R.1
  • 140
    • 70449716697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • A minority of Koreans say that Japan is a current threat, with 21 percent expressing this view in 2001 and 37 percent in 2005. Other polls suggest, however, that a larger fraction of Koreans view Japan as the most likely future threat. In 1996, 54 percent of Koreans said Japan posed the "greatest future danger to Korea's military security," and another poll that same year found that 60 percent of Koreans identified Japan as their country's next security threat. For the 2001 poll results, see http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harrispoll/printerfriend/index.asp?PID= 218 (accessed July 2006). For the 2005 results, see Chungang Ilbo, 17 April 2005. The first 1996 poll is from Norman D. Levin, The Shape of Korea's Future: South Korean Attitudes Toward Unifica- tion and Long-Term Security Issues (Santa Monica: RAND, 1999), 18. For the second 1996 poll, see http://bric.postech.ac.kr.bbs.daily/krnews/200109 2/20010921 4.html (accessed October 2000). For ad- ditional public opinion data, see Sook-Jong Lee, "Korean Perceptions and National Security," Korea Focus 3 (1995): 13-23.
  • 141
    • 84869666358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • August 2000, Korean Ministry of National Defense. Portions of document were published in Dong-a Ilbo, 19-20 August 2000;"New Interests Spur Force Development
    • "National Security and the Defense Budget in the 21st Century," memorandum
    • "National Security and the Defense Budget in the 21st Century," memorandum, August 2000, Korean Ministry of National Defense. Portions of document were published in Dong-a Ilbo, 19-20 August 2000;"New Interests Spur Force Development," Jane's Defence Weekly, 22 May 1996.
    • (1996) Jane's Defence Weekly , pp. 22
  • 142
    • 70449726249 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • After World War II, East Germany offered no contrition for Nazi crimes and was resolutely hostile toward Israel. This article examines only West German remembrance.
  • 144
    • 84869668827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Thirty Years of Diplomatic Relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Israel (Frankfurt: Tribune Books, 1995)
    • Historical exchange rates from PACIFIC Exchange Rate Service, Deflators from U.S. Office of Management and Budget
    • Otto R. Romberg and Heiner Lichtenstein, Thirty Years of Diplomatic Relations between the Federal Republic of Germany and Israel (Frankfurt: Tribune Books, 1995). Calculation is DM 3.5 billion, then US$800 million. In 1952, US$1= DM 4.195. Historical exchange rates from PACIFIC Exchange Rate Service, http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca.Deflators from U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 2005.
    • (2005) Calculation is DM 3.5 billion, then US$800 million. In 1952, US$1= DM 4.195
    • Romberg, O.R.1    Lichtenstein, H.2
  • 145
    • 70449697645 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "BEG" is an abbreviation for Bundesentschädigungsgesetz, or the Supplementary Federal Law for the Compensation of the Victims of National Socialist Persecution, passed 1 October 1953. The law was supplemented later by the "BRüG" law, or the Federal Restitution Law (Bundesrückerstattungsgesetz). See German Information Office website, http://www.germany-info.org.
  • 147
    • 1542368734 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past, trans
    • New York: Columbia University Press
    • Norman Frei, Adenauer's Germany and the Nazi Past, trans. Joel Golb (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
    • (2002) Joel Golb
    • Frei, N.1
  • 148
    • 84937180909 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Legacies of Divided Memory for German Debates About the Holocaust in the 1990s
    • (Fall 1999): 15
    • Jeffrey Herf, "Legacies of Divided Memory for German Debates About the Holocaust in the 1990s," German Politics and Society 17, no. 52 (Fall 1999): 15
    • German Politics and Society , vol.17 , Issue.52
    • Herf, J.1
  • 155
  • 156
    • 84869684487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past in Germany and Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Frei, Adenauer's Germany; Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany
    • October
    • David C. Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past in Germany and Austria (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Frei, Adenauer's Germany; Robert G. Moeller, "War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Historical Review 101, no. 4 (October 1996).
    • (1996) American Historical Review , vol.4 , pp. 101
    • David, C.1
  • 158
    • 70449703838 scopus 로고
    • The speeches of 8 May were given by Federal president Gustave Heinmann (1970)
    • The speeches of 8 May were given by Federal president Gustave Heinmann (1970), president Walter Scheel (1975)
    • (1975) president Walter Scheel
  • 159
    • 70449724343 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Federal president Richard Von Weizsäcker (1985). Jeffrey K. Olick, Genre Memories and Memory Genres: A Dialogical Analysis of May 8, 1945 Commemorations in the Federal Republic of Germany," American Sociological Review 64, no. 3 (1999).
  • 160
    • 70449710540 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Schmidt noted that most Germans alive then were "individually free from blame" but that they "can become guilty, too, if they fail to recognize the responsibility for what happens today and tomorrow deriving from what happened then." Helmut Schmidt, quoted in Herf, Divided Memory, 347.
  • 163
    • 1542386425 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 2nd ED. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 446; Evans, In Hitler's Shadow, 17
    • Dennis L. Bark and David R. Gress, A History of West Germany, VOL. 2, 2nd ED. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1989), 446; Evans, In Hitler's Shadow, 17
    • A History of West Germany , vol.2
    • Bark, D.L.1    Gress, D.R.2
  • 164
    • 84869671756 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The impetus for this increased attention to West German history education is frequently attributed to the horrified reaction of West Germans to anti-Semitic vandalism that occurred across the country in the late 1950s. Synagogues and Jewish cemeteries were desecrated. See Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau; Olick, "Genre Memories," 210
    • The impetus for this increased attention to West German history education is frequently attributed to the horrified reaction of West Germans to anti-Semitic vandalism that occurred across the country in the late 1950s. Synagogues and Jewish cemeteries were desecrated. See Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau; Olick, "Genre Memories," 210.
  • 166
    • 70449705619 scopus 로고
    • Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau; Walter Stahl, ED., New York: Praeger
    • Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau; Walter Stahl, ED., Education for Democracy in West Germany (New York: Praeger, 1961), 117.
    • (1961) Education for Democracy in West Germany , pp. 117
  • 168
    • 24544435648 scopus 로고
    • Some German Struggles With Memory
    • ED. Geoffrey Hartman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau
    • Saul Friedlander, "Some German Struggles With Memory," in Bitburg in Moral and Political Perspective, ED. Geoffrey Hartman (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 26-42; Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau.
    • (1986) Bitburg in Moral and Political Perspective , pp. 26-42
    • Friedlander, S.1
  • 169
    • 84869681895 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The controversy over Helmut Diwald's work, discussed in Evans, Rabinbach, "Beyond Bitburg," 200
    • The controversy over Helmut Diwald's work, discussed in Evans, In Hitler's Shadow, 15, 113; Rabinbach, "Beyond Bitburg," 200.
    • Hitler's Shadow , vol.15 , pp. 113
  • 172
    • 84869689318 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Genre Memories," 392; Siobhan Kattago, "Representing German Victimhood and Guilt: The Neue Wache and Unified German Memory
    • (Fall 1998)
    • Olick A, "Genre Memories," 392; Siobhan Kattago, "Representing German Victimhood and Guilt: The Neue Wache and Unified German Memory," German Politics and Society 16, no. 3 (Fall 1998): 96.
    • German Politics and Society , vol.16 , Issue.3 , pp. 96
    • Olick, A.1
  • 173
    • 84869667069 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Representing German Victimhood and Guilt
    • 96
    • Kattago, "Representing German Victimhood and Guilt," 96; Olick, "Genre Memories," 392
    • Olick, "Genre Memories , pp. 392
    • Kattago1
  • 174
    • 70449722555 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A History of West Germany, chap
    • Bark and Gress A History of West Germany, chap. 5; Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau, 365.
    • Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau , vol.5 , pp. 365
    • Bark1    Gress2
  • 175
    • 70449699402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Art, Politics of the Nazi Past. On NATO commemoration, see Olick, "Genre Memories," 395.
  • 176
    • 70449718522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Niven, Facing the Nazi Past; James A. Young, "Berlin's Holocaust Memorial," German Politics and Society 17, no. 3 (Fall 1999).
  • 177
    • 0031782585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Identity and Transnationalization in German School Textbooks
    • Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, "Identity and Transnationalization in German School Textbooks," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 30, no. 2 (1998): 57.
    • (1998) Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars , vol.30 , Issue.2 , pp. 57
    • Soysal, Y.N.1
  • 178
    • 0141835871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Walser, in a 1998 speech, famously lamented the "ritualization" of the German past and the "exploitation" of this past for current political goals. On the fiftieth anniversary controversies, see Karl Wilds, "Identity Creation and the Culture of Contrition: Recasting 'Normality' in the Berlin Republic
    • Niven, Facing the Nazi Past, chap. 7
    • Niven, Facing the Nazi Past, chap. 7. Walser, in a 1998 speech, famously lamented the "ritualization" of the German past and the "exploitation" of this past for current political goals. On the fiftieth anniversary controversies, see Karl Wilds, "Identity Creation and the Culture of Contrition: Recasting 'Normality' in the Berlin Republic," German Politics 9, no.1 (April 2000): 94.
    • (2000) German Politics , vol.9 , Issue.1 , pp. 94
  • 179
    • 0347126201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Goldhagen in Germany
    • 28 November 1996), On the museum exhibit, see Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau, 380
    • Josef Joffe, "Goldhagen in Germany," New York Review of Books 43, no. 19 (28 November 1996): 18-21. On the museum exhibit, see Marcuse, Legacies of Dachau, 380.
    • New York Review of Books , vol.43 , Issue.19 , pp. 18-21
    • Joffe, J.1
  • 180
    • 70449716693 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Space constraints prevent a more complete analysis of French perceptions of West Germany after the war. A longer analysis finds that French perceptions were strongly influenced also by Germany's participation in European institution-building and by Germany's handling of territorial claims. See Lind, Sorry States, chap. 3.
  • 182
    • 84869687869 scopus 로고
    • Introduction," in L'education De L'allemagne Occupée, ED. Helen Liddell, Edmond Vermeil, and Bogdan Suchodolski (Paris: Librarie Marcel Riviere et Cie, 1949). 133 Alfred Grosser, Germany in Our Time, trans. Paul Stephenson (New York: Praeger
    • Helen Liddell, "Introduction," in L'education De L'allemagne Occupée, ED. Helen Liddell, Edmond Vermeil, and Bogdan Suchodolski (Paris: Librarie Marcel Riviere et Cie, 1949). 133 Alfred Grosser, Germany in Our Time, trans. Paul Stephenson (New York: Praeger, 1970), 212-23
    • (1970) , pp. 212-23
    • Liddell, H.1
  • 183
    • 70449718523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Also arguing for the importance of German acknowledgement of Nazi-era crimes are Jean Solchany, Comprendre Le Nazisme Dans L'Allemagne Des Annees Zero 1945-1949 (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1997); Edouard Husson, Une Culpabilite Ordinaire? Hitler, les Allemands, et La Shoah (Paris: François-Xavier de Guibert, 1997).
  • 184
    • 84869671751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'Allemagne veut regarder son passé en face et au Coeur de Berlin
    • 10 May 2005
    • Blandine Milcent, "L'Allemagne veut regarder son passé en face et au Coeur de Berlin," La Croix, 10 May 2005.
    • La Croix
    • Milcent, B.1
  • 185
    • 84869688206 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Depuis soixante ans, les difficiles étapes qui ont mené à une commémoration commune
    • June
    • Henri de Bresson and Georges Marion, "Depuis soixante ans, les difficiles étapes qui ont mené à une commémoration commune," Le Monde, 5 June 2004.
    • (2004) Le Monde , pp. 5
    • de Bresson, H.1    Marion, G.2
  • 188
    • 84869678931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Le Mémorial de l'Holocauste de Berlin
    • Irène Kruse, "Le Mémorial de l'Holocauste de Berlin," Vingtiéme Siecle 67 (2000): 25.
    • (2000) Vingtiéme Siecle , vol.67 , pp. 25
    • Kruse, I.1
  • 191
    • 84869674115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'Avenir du Passé: La Polémique Walser-Bubis
    • (July-September 1999)
    • Marcel Tambarin, "L'Avenir du Passé: La Polémique Walser-Bubis," Allemagne d'Aujourd'hui, no. 149 (July-September 1999): 32.
    • Allemagne d'Aujourd'hui , Issue.149 , pp. 32
    • Tambarin, M.1
  • 192
    • 84869667334 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La Culpabilité Allemande, Entre Mythe Et Réalités
    • (Spring 1999)
    • Nicholas Weill, "La Culpabilité Allemande, Entre Mythe Et Réalités," La Revue Internationale et Stratégique, no. 33 (Spring 1999): 33.
    • La Revue Internationale et Stratégique , Issue.33 , pp. 33
    • Weill, N.1
  • 193
    • 70449726247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Joseph Mace-Scaron, "L'Allemagne contre son passe," Le Figaro, 18 December 1998; Lucas Delattre, "L'Allemagne décomplexée face au passé," Le Monde, 9 November 1998; Pascale Hugues, "Faut-il oublier le passé?" Le Point, no. 1373, 9 January 1999; Alain-Gérard Slama, "Faut-il avoir peur de l'Allemagne?" Le Figaro, 14 June 1999; Jean-Marie Rouart, "La nostalgie d'avoir été une conscience," Le Figaro, 15 March 2001.
  • 195
    • 70449724342 scopus 로고
    • Merritt, France, Germany, and the Western Alliance, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons
    • Merritt, France, Germany, and the Western Alliance: A Study in Elite Attitudes on European Integration and World Politics (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1967), 66.
    • (1967) A Study in Elite Attitudes on European Integration and World Politics , pp. 66
  • 196
    • 84869672345 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Poll by Institut Français d'Opinion Publique, 18 March 1965
    • Poll by Institut Français d'Opinion Publique, France Soir, 18 March 1965.
    • France Soir
  • 197
    • 70449697639 scopus 로고
    • trans. Terence Kilmartin (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971), 181; Maurice Couve de Murville, Une Politique Etrangere, 1958-1969 (Paris: Plon
    • Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor, trans. Terence Kilmartin (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971), 181; Maurice Couve de Murville, Une Politique Etrangere, 1958-1969 (Paris: Plon, 1971), 238.
    • (1971) Charles de Gaulle, Memoirs of Hope: Renewal and Endeavor , pp. 238
  • 198
    • 84869671752 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • French Ambassador to the United States, address
    • François Bujon de l'Estang, California, 26 February 1998
    • François Bujon de l'Estang, French Ambassador to the United States, address, University of California, Berkeley, California, 26 February 1998.
    • University of California, Berkeley
  • 199
    • 70449713075 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • On German debates about contrition, see Lind, Sorry States, chap. 3; Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past, chap. 3; Charles S. Maier, The Unmasterable Past: History, Holocaust, and German National Identity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988).
  • 201
    • 70449716694 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • On Austria, see Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past, chap. 6. Other European cases are discussed in David Art, "The Politics of the Past in Western Europe" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, Chicago, Illinois, 28 February 2007), 13. On France, see "Europe Socialists Reject Chirac Apology," Globe and Mail, 18 July 1995.
  • 202
    • 84869671754 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Archbishop of York Urges PM to Apologise for Slavery," The Guardian, 26 March 2007. On the Irish apologies, see Sarah Lyall, "Past as Prologue: Blair Faults Britain in Irish Potato Blight
    • New York Times, 3 June 1997; "Blair Walks into Mire of Controversy Over Famine," Belfast News Letter, 9 June 1997; "Blair Urged to Seek Apology from Adams,", 11 December 1997
    • David Ward, "Archbishop of York Urges PM to Apologise for Slavery," The Guardian, 26 March 2007. On the Irish apologies, see Sarah Lyall, "Past as Prologue: Blair Faults Britain in Irish Potato Blight," New York Times, 3 June 1997; "Blair Walks into Mire of Controversy Over Famine," Belfast News Letter, 9 June 1997; "Blair Urged to Seek Apology from Adams," Belfast News Letter, 11 December 1997.
    • Belfast News Letter
    • Ward, D.1
  • 203
    • 84872405330 scopus 로고
    • At Ground Zero; 2 Views of History Collide Over Smithsonian A-Bomb Exhibit
    • September
    • Ken Ringle, "At Ground Zero; 2 Views of History Collide Over Smithsonian A-Bomb Exhibit," Washington Post, 26 September 1994.
    • (1994) Washington Post , pp. 26
    • Ringle, K.1
  • 206
    • 70449708705 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • For example, Thomas Berger argues that global economic integration and changes in international norms raise the costs of impenitence and encourage states to be more contrite relative to the past
  • 208
    • 70449720319 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The British constructed a monument to the memory of "Bomber Harris," the commander of the Dresden raids. Stephen Kinzer, "Honor to R.A.F. Leader Wakes Dresden's Ghosts," New York Times, 6 January 1992.
  • 209
    • 70449712350 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past
    • Art, The Politics of the Nazi Past.
  • 210
    • 70449705620 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Japanese Government Should Be True in Word and Deed," Beijing Review 25, no. 38 (20 September 1982). On history issues in Sino-Japanese relations, see Lind, Sorry States, chap. 4; He, The Search for Reconciliation.
  • 211
    • 84869675138 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Background to Okuno's Defense of Aggression,"
    • Liowang no, (23 May 1988), trans. in FBIS Daily Report: China, 2 June 1988; Liu Wenyu, Xinhua News Service, 13 May 1988, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: China, 16 May 1988
    • Mei Zhenmin, "Background to Okuno's Defense of Aggression," Liowang no. 21 (23 May 1988), trans. in FBIS Daily Report: China, 2 June 1988; Liu Wenyu, "What Can Be Learned From Okuno's Resignation," Xinhua News Service, 13 May 1988, trans. in FBIS Daily Report: China, 16 May 1988.
    • What Can Be Learned From Okuno's Resignation , Issue.21
    • Zhenmin, M.1
  • 212
    • 70449726246 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • "Japan Should Take Germany as Its 'Mirror,"' Renmin Ribao, 21 April 2005; "The Genie Escapes: China and Japan," The Economist, 16 April 2005; Joseph Kahn, "China Pushing and Scripting Japanese Protests," New York Times, 15 April 2005.
  • 213
    • 70449699401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Time to End this Deafening Silence," Australian Financial Review, 1 June 2001; Shane Green, "Japan's Lack of Remorse Troubling as it Moves to Rearm," Sydney Morning Herald, 19 June 2003; Brian Victoria, "Right Face! The Return of Wartime Ghosts," Australian Financial Review, 9 August 2002. For more detailed analysis of the Australia-Japan case, see Lind, Sorry States, chap. 4.
  • 215
    • 70449697640 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Supporting Peace Education in the PA?
    • 25 February 2007
    • Itamar Marcus and Barbara Crook, "Supporting Peace Education in the PA?" Jerusalem Post, 25 February 2007;
    • Jerusalem Post
    • Marcus, I.1    Crook, B.2
  • 217
    • 70449703030 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Denial Reopens Wounds of Japan's Ex-Sex Slaves
    • Norimitsu Onishi, "Denial Reopens Wounds of Japan's Ex-Sex Slaves," New York Times, 8 March 2007.
    • (2007) New York Times , pp. 8
    • Onishi, N.1
  • 218
    • 65649099729 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Perils of Apology: What Japan Shouldn't Learn from Germany
    • For recommendations about the Japanese case, see Jennifer Lind, (May/June 2009)
    • For recommendations about the Japanese case, see Jennifer Lind, "The Perils of Apology: What Japan Shouldn't Learn from Germany," Foreign Affairs 88, no. 3 (May/June 2009): 132-46.
    • Foreign Affairs , vol.88 , Issue.3 , pp. 132-46
  • 219
    • 70449703031 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • New History Text Turns a Page in East Asia Ties
    • June
    • Chua Chin Hon, "New History Text Turns a Page in East Asia Ties," The Straits Times, 10 June 2005.
    • (2005) The Straits Times , pp. 10
    • Hon, C.C.1
  • 221
    • 0003852410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Surveying the voluminous transitional justice literature is Leslie Vinjamuri and Jack Snyder, "Advocacy and Scholarship in the Study of International War Crime Tribunals and Transitional Justice," Annual Review of Political Science (2004)
    • Stuart J. Kaufman, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001). Surveying the voluminous transitional justice literature is Leslie Vinjamuri and Jack Snyder, "Advocacy and Scholarship in the Study of International War Crime
    • (2001) Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War
    • Kaufman, S.J.1


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