Japanese education, nationalism, and Ienaga Saburo's court challenges

Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 1998, Pages 37-46

  Yoshiko, Nozaki ^a   Hiromitsu, Inokuchi ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CENSORSHIP; GEOPOLITICS; HISTORICAL REPRESENTATION; NATIONALISM; TEXTBOOK;

JAPAN;

EID: 0031723494     PISSN: 00074810     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14672715.1998.10411042     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Yamazumi Masami, Nihon Kyoiku Sho-shi (A concise history of Japanese education) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1987), p. 143. The term kokutai is often translated as "national polity," but the exact translation of the term is difficult. For further discussion, see Richard Minear, Japanese Tradition and Western Law: Emperor, State, and Law in the Thought of Hozumi Yatsuka (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 56-83.
2. Yamazumi Masami, Nihon Kyoiku Sho-shi (A concise history of Japanese education) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1987), p. 143. The term kokutai is often translated as "national polity," but the exact translation of the term is difficult. For further discussion, see Richard Minear, Japanese Tradition and Western Law: Emperor, State, and Law in the Thought of Hozumi Yatsuka (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 56-83.
3. Space does not permit us to elaborate this point, but we would like to remind readers that the actual processes of identity formation through education needs to be understood as complex and flexible. See Raymond Williams, "Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory," in Problems in Materialism and Culture (London: Verso, 1980), pp. 38-40.
4. Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States (New York: Routledge, 1986), p. 68.
5. The Imperial Rescript on Education was in essence the narrative of the imperial nation. See Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be Modern: Japanese Political Discourse on Education (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 58-62; and Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988), pp. 65-72. For the presurrender textbook contents, see Nakamura Kikuji, Kyokasho no Shakaishi (A social history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992); Nakauchi Toshio, Gunkoku Bidan to Kyokasho (Fine militarist stories and textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988); and Ienaga Saburo, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," International Security 18, no. 3 (winter 1993/94): 113-122.
6. The Imperial Rescript on Education was in essence the narrative of the imperial nation. See Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be Modern: Japanese Political Discourse on Education (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 58-62; and Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988), pp. 65-72. For the presurrender textbook contents, see Nakamura Kikuji, Kyokasho no Shakaishi (A social history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992); Nakauchi Toshio, Gunkoku Bidan to Kyokasho (Fine militarist stories and textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988); and Ienaga Saburo, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," International Security 18, no. 3 (winter 1993/94): 113-122.
7. The Imperial Rescript on Education was in essence the narrative of the imperial nation. See Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be Modern: Japanese Political Discourse on Education (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 58-62; and Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988), pp. 65-72. For the presurrender textbook contents, see Nakamura Kikuji, Kyokasho no Shakaishi (A social history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992); Nakauchi Toshio, Gunkoku Bidan to Kyokasho (Fine militarist stories and textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988); and Ienaga Saburo, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," International Security 18, no. 3 (winter 1993/94): 113-122.
8. The Imperial Rescript on Education was in essence the narrative of the imperial nation. See Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be Modern: Japanese Political Discourse on Education (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 58-62; and Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988), pp. 65-72. For the presurrender textbook contents, see Nakamura Kikuji, Kyokasho no Shakaishi (A social history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992); Nakauchi Toshio, Gunkoku Bidan to Kyokasho (Fine militarist stories and textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988); and Ienaga Saburo, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," International Security 18, no. 3 (winter 1993/94): 113-122.
9. The Imperial Rescript on Education was in essence the narrative of the imperial nation. See Byron K. Marshall, Learning to Be Modern: Japanese Political Discourse on Education (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), pp. 58-62; and Horio Teruhisa, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan (Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press, 1988), pp. 65-72. For the presurrender textbook contents, see Nakamura Kikuji, Kyokasho no Shakaishi (A social history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1992); Nakauchi Toshio, Gunkoku Bidan to Kyokasho (Fine militarist stories and textbooks) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1988); and Ienaga Saburo, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," International Security 18, no. 3 (winter 1993/94): 113-122.
10. See Nakamura, Kyokasho no Shakaishi, pp. 220-221; and Yoko H. Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan, 1945- 52," History of Education Quarterly 35, no. 3 (fall 1995): 265.
11. See Nakamura, Kyokasho no Shakaishi, pp. 220-221; and Yoko H. Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan, 1945-52," History of Education Quarterly 35, no. 3 (fall 1995): 265.
12. The exception was the case of second-semester elementary school textbooks on the Japanese language, for which exact items were specified. Such items were mainly war-related. Stories adulating the emperors remained, along with Kimigayo, a song wishing for the prosperity of imperial sovereignty. See Yamazumi, Nihon Kyoiku Sho-shi, pp. 148-150. For the translation of the portion of the order, see John Caiger, "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook," Modern Asian Studies 3, no. 1 (1969): 2-3.
13. The exception was the case of second-semester elementary school textbooks on the Japanese language, for which exact items were specified. Such items were mainly war-related. Stories adulating the emperors remained, along with Kimigayo, a song wishing for the prosperity of imperial sovereignty. See Yamazumi, Nihon Kyoiku Sho-shi, pp. 148-150. For the translation of the portion of the order, see John Caiger, "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook," Modern Asian Studies 3, no. 1 (1969): 2-3.
14. For further discussion on the blackened-out textbooks, see Nakamura, Kyokasho no Shakai-shi, pp. 220-238; and Yamazumi Masami, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu (The beginning of social studies education) (Tokyo: Nihon Tosho Senta, 1981), pp. 9-15.
15. For further discussion on the blackened-out textbooks, see Nakamura, Kyokasho no Shakai-shi, pp. 220-238; and Yamazumi Masami, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu (The beginning of social studies education) (Tokyo: Nihon Tosho Senta, 1981), pp. 9-15.
16. The blackened-out textbooks remained in use until 31 July 1946. In 1946 and 1947 the Ministry published and distributed "stop-gap" textbooks in certain subjects. These were in short supply, however. For details, see Tokutake Toshio, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, (The postwar history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Shin Nihon Shuppansha, 1995), pp. 44-45; and Kyoiku no Sengoshi Henshu Iinkai (Committee for the Compilation of Postwar Education History), Sengo Kyoiku Kaikaku to sono Hokai eno Michi (The postwar educational reform and the course of its collapse) (Tokyo: San'ichi Shobo, 1986), pp.131-32.
17. The blackened-out textbooks remained in use until 31 July 1946. In 1946 and 1947 the Ministry published and distributed "stop-gap" textbooks in certain subjects. These were in short supply, however. For details, see Tokutake Toshio, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, (The postwar history of textbooks) (Tokyo: Shin Nihon Shuppansha, 1995), pp. 44-45; and Kyoiku no Sengoshi Henshu Iinkai (Committee for the Compilation of Postwar Education History), Sengo Kyoiku Kaikaku to sono Hokai eno Michi (The postwar educational reform and the course of its collapse) (Tokyo: San'ichi Shobo, 1986), pp.131-32.
18. Ienaga Saburo, "The Historical Significance of the Japanese Textbook Lawsuit," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2, no. 4 (1970): 8. See also Ienaga Saburo, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku" (Postwar history education), in Iwanami Koza Nihon Rekishi (Iwanami lecture series, Japanese history), vol. 22, Bekkan (Special volume) no. 1, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1968), p. 319.
19. Ienaga Saburo, "The Historical Significance of the Japanese Textbook Lawsuit," Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 2, no. 4 (1970): 8. See also Ienaga Saburo, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku" (Postwar history education), in Iwanami Koza Nihon Rekishi (Iwanami lecture series, Japanese history), vol. 22, Bekkan (Special volume) no. 1, (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1968), p. 319.
20. From the beginning there was a conflict between SCAP, seeing entirely new history textbooks as necessary, and the Ministry, seeking merely to eliminate militaristic content from existing textbooks. While Toyoda's text began with archaeological findings, which pleased SCAP, it presented as history the myth of the founding of Japan, which was quite unacceptable to SCAP. Though SCAP suggested a new deal, Maruyama, writing the normal school textbook, remained as an author forthenewproject. See Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 267-68; and Ienaga, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku," pp. 314-17.
21. From the beginning there was a conflict between SCAP, seeing entirely new history textbooks as necessary, and the Ministry, seeking merely to eliminate militaristic content from existing textbooks. While Toyoda's text began with archaeological findings, which pleased SCAP, it presented as history the myth of the founding of Japan, which was quite unacceptable to SCAP. Though SCAP suggested a new deal, Maruyama, writing the normal school textbook, remained as an author forthenewproject. See Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 267-68; and Ienaga, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku," pp. 314-17.
22. Ibid., pp. 318-19. See also Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 16-18.
23. Ibid., pp. 318-19. See also Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 16-18.
24. Ienaga's specialty was ancient Japanese history. His doctoral dissertation was on eighth- to twelfth-century cultural history. According to Ienaga, most of the members were historians of "empirical tradition" (jisshoshugi) who were rather apolitical and who had had little experience teaching history in grade schools. See Ienaga, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku," p. 319. For further discussion on Ienaga and Kuni no Ayumi, see Caiger, "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook"; and Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan."
25. Ienaga's specialty was ancient Japanese history. His doctoral dissertation was on eighth- to twelfth-century cultural history. According to Ienaga, most of the members were historians of "empirical tradition" (jisshoshugi) who were rather apolitical and who had had little experience teaching history in grade schools. See Ienaga, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku," p. 319. For further discussion on Ienaga and Kuni no Ayumi, see Caiger, "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook"; and Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan."
26. Ienaga's specialty was ancient Japanese history. His doctoral dissertation was on eighth- to twelfth-century cultural history. According to Ienaga, most of the members were historians of "empirical tradition" (jisshoshugi) who were rather apolitical and who had had little experience teaching history in grade schools. See Ienaga, "Sengo no Rekishi Kyoiku," p. 319. For further discussion on Ienaga and Kuni no Ayumi, see Caiger, "Ienaga Saburo and the First Postwar Japanese History Textbook"; and Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan."
27. For the criticisms, see Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 270-271; Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 18-19; and Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kyokasho no Shiso: Nihon to Kankoku no Kingendai-shi (Thoughts in textbooks: The modern and contemporary history represented in Japan and South Korea) (Tokyo: Suzusawa Shoten, 1996), pp. 274-78. The biggest shock for those involved in the history textbook production, however, was perhaps the introduction of "social studies," which nearly made the textbooks developed useless. For details, see Kimijima, Kyokasho no Shiso, p. 280; and Usui Kaichi et al., Atarashi Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai (An invitation to new secondary social studies) (Tokyo: Chirekisha, 1992), pp. 155-62.
28. For the criticisms, see Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 270-271; Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 18-19; and Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kyokasho no Shiso: Nihon to Kankoku no Kingendai-shi (Thoughts in textbooks: The modern and contemporary history represented in Japan and South Korea) (Tokyo: Suzusawa Shoten, 1996), pp. 274-78. The biggest shock for those involved in the history textbook production, however, was perhaps the introduction of "social studies," which nearly made the textbooks developed useless. For details, see Kimijima, Kyokasho no Shiso, p. 280; and Usui Kaichi et al., Atarashi Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai (An invitation to new secondary social studies) (Tokyo: Chirekisha, 1992), pp. 155-62.
29. For the criticisms, see Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 270-271; Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 18-19; and Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kyokasho no Shiso: Nihon to Kankoku no Kingendai-shi (Thoughts in textbooks: The modern and contemporary history represented in Japan and South Korea) (Tokyo: Suzusawa Shoten, 1996), pp. 274-78. The biggest shock for those involved in the history textbook production, however, was perhaps the introduction of "social studies," which nearly made the textbooks developed useless. For details, see Kimijima, Kyokasho no Shiso, p. 280; and Usui Kaichi et al., Atarashi Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai (An invitation to new secondary social studies) (Tokyo: Chirekisha, 1992), pp. 155-62.
30. For the criticisms, see Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 270-271; Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 18-19; and Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kyokasho no Shiso: Nihon to Kankoku no Kingendai-shi (Thoughts in textbooks: The modern and contemporary history represented in Japan and South Korea) (Tokyo: Suzusawa Shoten, 1996), pp. 274-78. The biggest shock for those involved in the history textbook production, however, was perhaps the introduction of "social studies," which nearly made the textbooks developed useless. For details, see Kimijima, Kyokasho no Shiso, p. 280; and Usui Kaichi et al., Atarashi Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai (An invitation to new secondary social studies) (Tokyo: Chirekisha, 1992), pp. 155-62.
31. For the criticisms, see Thakur, "History Textbook Reform in Allied Occupied Japan," pp. 270-271; Yamazumi, Shakaika Kyoiku no Shuppatsu, pp. 18-19; and Kimijima Kazuhiko, Kyokasho no Shiso: Nihon to Kankoku no Kingendai-shi (Thoughts in textbooks: The modern and contemporary history represented in Japan and South Korea) (Tokyo: Suzusawa Shoten, 1996), pp. 274-78. The biggest shock for those involved in the history textbook production, however, was perhaps the introduction of "social studies," which nearly made the textbooks developed useless. For details, see Kimijima, Kyokasho no Shiso, p. 280; and Usui Kaichi et al., Atarashi Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai (An invitation to new secondary social studies) (Tokyo: Chirekisha, 1992), pp. 155-62.
32. The fear here was of state control over education - at least in a common interpretation. See Horio, Educational Thought and Ideology in Modern Japan, p. 121.
33. Ibid., pp. 108-29. In fact, the Rescript was negated by a Diet resolution in 1948. See also Yamazumi Masami, "Educational Democracy versus State Control," in Democracy in Contemporary Japan, ed. Gavan McCormack and Sugimoto Yoshio (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1986), p. 95.
34. Ibid., pp. 108-29. In fact, the Rescript was negated by a Diet resolution in 1948. See also Yamazumi Masami, "Educational Democracy versus State Control," in Democracy in Contemporary Japan, ed. Gavan McCormack and Sugimoto Yoshio (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1986), p. 95.
35. This situation, which in the Ministry's words was to be the case "for the time being," in fact became permanent.
36. The Ministry even suggested that each classroom could adopt different textbooks. See Nakauchi Toshio et al., Nihon Kyoiku no Sengoshi (The postwar history of Japanese education) (Tokyo: Sanseido, 1987), p. 105; and Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 57.
37. The Ministry even suggested that each classroom could adopt different textbooks. See Nakauchi Toshio et al., Nihon Kyoiku no Sengoshi (The postwar history of Japanese education) (Tokyo: Sanseido, 1987), p. 105; and Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 57.
38. Teachers' enthusiasm continued in the following years. See Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 59. Note that some of the textbooks were still in production and thus were not available for display.
39. See Ienaga Saburo, Kyokasho Kentei (Textbook screening) (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1965), pp. 79-81; and Benjamin C. Duke, "The Textbook Controversy," Japan Quarterly 19, no.3 (July-September 1972).
40. See Ienaga Saburo, Kyokasho Kentei (Textbook screening) (Tokyo: Nihon Hyoronsha, 1965), pp. 79-81; and Benjamin C. Duke, "The Textbook Controversy," Japan Quarterly 19, no.3 (July-September 1972).
41. Ikeda Hayato was then the head of the Policy Research Committee of the Liberal Party (Jiyuto). Walter Robertson was the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State.
42. According to the brochures, there were four types of "biased" descriptions: one supporting the teachers' labor-union and political activities, one stressing the poverty of the Japanese workers and promoting their labor movement, one praising the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China, and one teaching communist ideas.
43. Two prominent academics and textbook authors, Hidaka Rokuro and Nagasu Kazuji, publicly denounced the screening and withdrew their contributions to Akarui Shakai, a popular social studies textbook for junior high school published by Chukyo Shuppan Press. Around this time, an editor at the press, Tokutake Toshio, inspired by Ienaga's talk, explored the possibility of bringing a court case against the screening, but gave up the idea. See Kyokasho Kentei Sosho wo Shiensuru Zenkoku Renrakukai (NLSTS, National League for Support of the School Textbook Screening Suit), ed., Ienaga Kyokasho Saiban Junenshi (Ten-year history of Ienaga's textbook screening suit) (Tokyo: Sodobunka, 1977), p. 255.
44. More books were rejected in 1958 than in any other year except the year in which the screening system was launched. The Publishing Workers' Union decided to make the rejection reasons public, publishing Kyokasho Repoto (Annual report on textbooks). See Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, pp. 103-15. For further discussion on the conservative turn in education, see Yamazumi, "Educational Democracy versus State Control," pp. 95-97.
45. More books were rejected in 1958 than in any other year except the year in which the screening system was launched. The Publishing Workers' Union decided to make the rejection reasons public, publishing Kyokasho Repoto (Annual report on textbooks). See Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, pp. 103-15. For further discussion on the conservative turn in education, see Yamazumi, "Educational Democracy versus State Control," pp. 95-97.
46. More books were rejected in 1958 than in any other year except the year in which the screening system was launched. The Publishing Workers' Union decided to make the rejection reasons public, publishing Kyokasho Repoto (Annual report on textbooks). See Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, pp. 103-15. For further discussion on the conservative turn in education, see Yamazumi, "Educational Democracy versus State Control," pp. 95-97.
47. An overall, or a partial, revision and screening of textbooks usually took place every three years. The term "a tentative plan" was removed from the titles of the 1955/56 Instruction Guidelines, which meant that they were now "requirements" rather than "suggested plans" for instruction. Furthermore, in 1958, the Ministry began toclaim that the Instruction Guidelines had legal force.
48. For details, see Ienaga, "The Historical Significance of the Japanese Textbook Lawsuit," pp. 8-10; Ienaga, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," pp. 124-126.
49. For details, see Ienaga, "The Historical Significance of the Japanese Textbook Lawsuit," pp. 8-10; Ienaga, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," pp. 124-126.
50. For further discussion, see, for example, Ronald. P. Dore, "Textbook Censorship in Japan: The Ienaga Case," Pacific Affairs 43 (winter 1970-71): 548-56.
51. For example, the main reason for the 1963 rejection was "flaws in both accuracy and choice of contents"; the number of "inadequate" items was 323; and the mark was 784. In 1964 the text just scraped through the screening process with 73 requests and 217 suggestions.
52. For further discussion, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan (Division of Mainichi News covering Educational Affairs), Kyokasho Senso (Textbook war) (Tokyo: San'ichi Shobo, 1981), pp. 148-60; Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 186; and Tokutake Toshio, Kyokasho Saiban wa Ima (The current state of textbook screening lawsuits) (Tokyo: Azumino Shobo, 1991), pp. 155-70.
53. For further discussion, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan (Division of Mainichi News covering Educational Affairs), Kyokasho Senso (Textbook war) (Tokyo: San'ichi Shobo, 1981), pp. 148-60; Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 186; and Tokutake Toshio, Kyokasho Saiban wa Ima (The current state of textbook screening lawsuits) (Tokyo: Azumino Shobo, 1991), pp. 155-70.
54. For further discussion, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan (Division of Mainichi News covering Educational Affairs), Kyokasho Senso (Textbook war) (Tokyo: San'ichi Shobo, 1981), pp. 148-60; Tokutake, Kyokasho no Sengoshi, p. 186; and Tokutake Toshio, Kyokasho Saiban wa Ima (The current state of textbook screening lawsuits) (Tokyo: Azumino Shobo, 1991), pp. 155-70.
55. This version was translated by Saigo Takehiko, a language education scholar. A different version, by Leo Tolstoy, was translated by Uchida Risako. The story has also been popular in the United States. Turnip: An Old Russian Folktale (New York: Philomel Books, 1990).
56. For details of the party's attack on the textbooks, see Usui et al., Atarashii Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai, pp. 172-175. For further discussion of the textbook controversy in the 1980s, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan, Kyokasho Senso; and Yamazumi Masami, Gakko Kyokasho (School textbooks) (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1982).
57. For details of the party's attack on the textbooks, see Usui et al., Atarashii Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai, pp. 172-175. For further discussion of the textbook controversy in the 1980s, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan, Kyokasho Senso; and Yamazumi Masami, Gakko Kyokasho (School textbooks) (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1982).
58. For details of the party's attack on the textbooks, see Usui et al., Atarashii Chuto Shakaika eno Izanai, pp. 172-175. For further discussion of the textbook controversy in the 1980s, see Mainichi Shinbunsha Kyoiku Shuzaihan, Kyokasho Senso; and Yamazumi Masami, Gakko Kyokasho (School textbooks) (Tokyo: Asahi Shinbunsha, 1982).
59. The media reported it as if it were new, even though requests of this kind had been made since the 1960s.
60. Some labor unions and social action groups in Hong Kong sent a letter of complaint to the Japanese Embassy; in August, the official party newspaper of the Democratic Republic of Korea (North Korea) criticized the Japanese official view on this issue, and the Vietnamese government asked the Japanese ambassador to correct textbook remarks concerning Vietnam.
61. These were mainly Chinese prisoners of war, but they also included people from Korea, Mongolia, European countries, and the Soviet Union. See Sheldon H. Harris, Factories of Death: Japanese Biological Warfare, 1932-45, and the American Cover-up (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), p. 49.
62. For details, see Ienaga, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," pp. 126-27; and National League for Support of the School Textbook Screening Suit (NLSTS), Truth in Textbooks, Freedom in Education and Peace for Children: The Struggle against the Censorship of School Textbooks in Japan (Tokyo: NLSTS, 1992), pp. 10-19. "Troop Somo" was very popular with the peasants and played an important role in drawing peasant support for the Meiji government Peasants felt betrayed when the government executed the members of Troop Somo for allegedly fabricating an announcement about a tax-cut that would have benefited peasants.
63. For details, see Ienaga, "The Glorification of War in Japanese Education," pp. 126-27; and National League for Support of the School Textbook Screening Suit (NLSTS), Truth in Textbooks, Freedom in Education and Peace for Children: The Struggle against the Censorship of School Textbooks in Japan (Tokyo: NLSTS, 1992), pp. 10-19. "Troop Somo" was very popular with the peasants and played an important role in drawing peasant support for the Meiji government Peasants felt betrayed when the government executed the members of Troop Somo for allegedly fabricating an announcement about a tax-cut that would have benefited peasants.
64. The court did not even notify Ienaga before handing down its ruling, a questionable legal maneuver in itself.
65. By this time, the existence of Unit 731 had become common knowledge, mainly because of Morimura Seiichi's book Akuma no Hoshoku (The devil's gluttony) (Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 1982); however, the question with which the court was concerned was whether or not Ienaga's description, or the Ministry's request, was based on scholarly work established by the time of the screening.
66. In fact, he won on four of the six points he had changed at the Ministry's request. The complete text of the judgment appears in Kentei ni Ihou Ari: Ienaga Kyokasho Saiban SaikosaiHanketsu (The screening is found illegal: The Supreme Court decision of Ienaga's textbook lawsuit), ed. Kyokasho Kentei Sosho wo Shiensuru Zenkoku Renrakukai (NLSTS) (Tokyo: NLSTS, 1997).
67. Immanuel Wallerstein, "The Construction of Peoplehood: Racism, Nationalism, Ethnicity," in Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities, Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein (London: Verso, 1991), p. 78.
68. Patrick Wright, On Living in an Old Country: The National Past in Contemporary Britain (London: Verso, 1985), pp. 24-26.
69. Wada Haruki and Ishizaka Koichi, "Hajime ni" (Introduction), in Nihon wa Shokuminchi-shihai o do Kangaete Kitaka (How Japan has thought about its colonial rule), ed. Wada Haruki, Ishizaka Koichi, and Sengo Goju-nen Kokkai Ketsugi o Motomeru-kai (Group for Requesting the Diet Resolution of Japan's War Responsibility) (Tokyo: Nashinokisha, 1996), pp. 1-5.
70. Critical investigations are necessary to understand why many Japanese progressives as well as ordinary people "collaborated" with the government in its professed ignorance of war responsibility. One good example of such a study is Yoshida Yutaka, Nihonjin no Senso-kan: Sengo-shi no nakano Henyo (Japanese views on the war: Changes in the postwar history) (Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1995).
71. Ibid, pp. 160-61.
72. Raymond Williams, Resources of Hope: Culture, Democracy, Socialism (London: Verso, 1989), pp. 36-38.
73. Todd Gitlin, The Twilight of Common Dreams: Why America Is Wracked by Culture Wars (New York Metropolitan Books, 1995), p. 23.