The bladder extracellular matrix. Part II: Regenerative applications

Nature Reviews Urology

Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 612-621

  Aitken, Karen J ^a   Bägli, Darius J ^a  

^a HOSPITAL FOR SICK CHILDREN   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MOLECULAR SCAFFOLD;

APOPTOSIS; BLADDER DISEASE; BLADDER RECONSTRUCTION; CELL ADHESION; CELL FUNCTION; CELL GROWTH; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SPREADING; CELL TYPE; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; MECHANOTRANSDUCTION; NONHUMAN; PHENOTYPE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REGENERATION; REVIEW; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

ANIMALS; BIOMECHANICS; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; HUMANS; REGENERATION; STEM CELL TRANSPLANTATION; URINARY BLADDER;

EID: 70449361867     PISSN: 17594812     EISSN: 17594820     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2009.202     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Bagli, D. in Progress in Paediatric Urology Vol. 4 (eds Bajpai, M. et al.) 1-10 (Penwell Publishers PLC, New Delhi, 2001).
2. Aitken, K. & Bagli, D. R. The bladder extracellular matrix. Part I: architecture, development and disease Nat. Rev. Urol. 6, 596-611 (2009).
3. Li, Y., Liu, W., Hayward, S. W., Cunha, G. R. & Baskin, L. S. Plasticity of the urothelial phenotype: Effects of gastro-intestinal mesenchyme/stroma and implications for urinary tract reconstruction. Differentiation 66, 126-135 (2000).
4. Woodhouse, C. R., North, A. C. & Gearhart, J. P. Standing the test of time: Long-term outcome of reconstruction of the exstrophy bladder. World J. Urol. 24, 244-249 (2006).
5. Badylak, S. F. Xenogeneic extracellular matrix as a scaffold for tissue reconstruction. Transpl. Immunol. 12, 367-377 (2004).
6. Santucci, R. A. & Barber, T. D. Resorbable extracellular matrix grafts in urologic reconstruction. Int. Braz. J. Urol. 31, 192-203 (2005).
7. Gardiner, R. A. Molecular and reconstructive urology: A coming together. World J. Surg. 24, 1163-1166 (2000).
8. Geutjes, P. J. et al. From molecules to matrix: Construction and evaluation of molecularly defined bioscaffolds. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 585, 279-295 (2006).
9. Drewa, T., Adamowicz, J., Lysik, J., Polaczek, J. & Pielichowski, J. Chitosan scaffold enhances nerve regeneration within the in vitro reconstructed bladder wall: An animal study. Urol. Int. 81, 330-334 (2008).
10. Badylak, S. F., Freytes, D. O. & Gilbert, T. W. Extracellular matrix as a biological scaffold material: Structure and function. Acta Biomater. 5, 1-13 (2009).
11. Harrington, D. A., Sharma, A. K., Erickson, B. A. & Cheng, E. Y. Bladder tissue engineering through nanotechnology. World J. Urol. 26 315-322 (2008).
12. Wood, D. & Southgate, J. Current status of tissue engineering in urology. Curr. Opin. Urol. 18, 564-569 (2008).
13. Brown, B., Lindberg, K., Reing, J., Stolz, D. B. & Badylak, S. F. The basement membrane component of biologic scaffolds derived from extracellular matrix. Tissue Eng. 12, 519-526 (2006).
14. Hodde, J., Record, R., Tullius, R. & Badylak, S. Fibronectin peptides mediate HMeC adhesion to porcine-derived extracellular matrix. Biomaterials 23, 1841-1848 (2002).
15. Cartwright, L. M., Shou, Z., Yeger, H. & Farhat, W. A. Porcine bladder acellular matrix porosity: Impact of hyaluronic acid and lyophilization. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 77, 180-184 (2006).
16. Harrington, D. A. et al. Branched peptide-amphiphiles as self-assembling coatings for tissue engineering scaffolds. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 78, 157-167 (2006).
17. Becker, C. et al. 'UroMaix' scaffolds: Novel collagen matrices for application in tissue engineering of the urinary tract. Int. J. Artif. Organs 29, 764-771 (2006).
18. Badylak, S., Kokini, K., Tullius, B. & Whitson, B. Strength over time of a resorbable bioscaffold for body wall repair in a dog model. J. Surg. Res. 99, 282-287 (2001).
19. Brehmer, B., Rohrmann, D., Becker, C., Rau, G. & Jackse, G. Different types of scaffolds for reconstruction of the urinary tract by tissue engineering. Urol. Int. 78, 23-29 (2007).
20. Yip, C. Y., Chen, J. H., Zhao, R. & Simmons, C. A. Calcification by valve interstitial cells is regulated by the stiffness of the extracellular matrix. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 29, 936-942 (2009).
21. Stankus, J. J., Freytes, D. O., Badylak, S. F. & wagner, W. R. Hybrid nanofibrous scaffolds from electrospinning of a synthetic biodegradable elastomer and urinary bladder matrix. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 19, 635-652 (2008).
22. Han, D. & Gouma, P. I. Electrospun bioscaffolds that mimic the topology of extracellular matrix. Nanomedicine 2, 37-41 (2006).
23. Li, W. J., Mauck, R. L., Cooper, J. A., Yuan, X. & Tuan, R. S. Engineering controllable anisotropy in electrospun biodegradable nanofibrous scaffolds for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. J. Biomech. 40, 1686-1693 (2007).
24. Daamen, W. F. et al. Preparation and evaluation of molecularly-defined collagen-elastin-glycosaminoglycan scaffolds for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 24, 4001-4009 (2003).
25. Thapa, A., Webster, T. J. & Haberstroh, K. M. Polymers with nano-dimensional surface features enhance bladder smooth muscle cell adhesion. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 67, 1374-1383 (2003).
26. Thapa, A., Miller, D. C., Webster, T. J. & Haberstroh, K. M. Nano-structured polymers enhance bladder smooth muscle cell function. Biomaterials 24, 2915-2926 (2003).
27. Adelöw, C., Segura, T., Hubbell, J. A. & Frey, P. The effect of enzymatically degradable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels on smooth muscle cell phenotype. Biomaterials 29, 314-326 (2008).
28. Munoz-Pinto, D. J., Bulick, A. S. & Hahn, M. S. Uncoupled investigation of scaffold modulus and mesh size on smooth muscle cell behavior. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 90, 303-316 (2009).
29. Rohman, G., Pettit, J. J., Isaure, F., Cameron, N. R. & Southgate, J. Influence of the physical properties of two-dimensional polyester substrates on the growth of normal human urothelial and urinary smooth muscle cells in vitro. Biomaterials 28, 2264-2274 (2007).
30. Baker, S. C., Rohman, G., Southgate, J. & Cameron, N. R. The relationship between the mechanical properties and cell behavior on PLGA and PCL scaffolds for bladder tissue engineering. Biomaterials 30, 1321-1328 (2009).
31. Dahms, S. E., Piechota, H. J., Dahiya, R., Lue, T. F. & Tanagho, E. A. Composition and biomechanical properties of the bladder acellular matrix graft: Comparative analysis in rat, pig and human. Br. J. Urol. 82, 411-419 (1998).
32. Korossis, S., Bolland, F., Southgate, J., Ingham, E. & Fisher, J. Regional biomechanical and histological characterisation of the passive porcine urinary bladder: Implications for augmentation and tissue engineering strategies. Biomaterials 30, 266-275 (2009).
33. Freytes, D. O., Badylak, S. F., Webster, T. J., Geddes, L. A. & Rundell, A. E. Biaxial strength of multilaminated extracellular matrix scaffolds. Biomaterials 25, 2353-2361 (2004).
34. Bolland, F. et al. Development and characterisation of a full-thickness acellular porcine bladder matrix for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 28, 1061-1070 (2007).
35. Lu, S. H. et al. Biaxial mechanical properties of muscle-derived cell seeded small intestinal submucosa for bladder wall reconstitution. Biomaterials 26, 443-449 (2005).
36. Gilbert, T. W. et al. Collagen fiber alignment and biaxial mechanical behavior of porcine urinary bladder derived extracellular matrix. Biomaterials 29, 4775-4782 (2008).
37. Liu, Y., Bharadwaj, S., Lee, S. J., Atala, A. & Zhang, Y. Optimization of a natural collagen scaffold to aid cell-matrix penetration for urologic tissue engineering. Biomaterials 30, 3865-3873 (2009).
38. Rosario, D. J. et al. Decellularization and sterilization of porcine urinary bladder matrix for tissue engineering in the lower urinary tract. Regen. Med. 3, 145-156 (2008).
39. Gilbert, T. W., Sellaro, T. L. & Badylak, S. F. Decellularization of tissues and organs. Biomaterials 27, 3675-3683 (2006).
40. Brown, A. L., Ringuette, M. J., Prestwich, G. D., Bagli, D. J. & Woodhouse, K. A. Effects of hyaluronan and SPARC on fibroproliferative events assessed in an in vitro bladder acellular matrix model. Biomaterials 27, 3825-3835 (2006).
41. Brown, A. L., Srokowski, E. M., Shu, X. Z., Prestwich, G. D. & Woodhouse, K. A. Development of a model bladder extracellular matrix combining disulfide crosslinked hyaluronan with decellularized bladder tissue. Macromol. Biosci. 6, 648-657 (2006).
42. Cowan, K. N. et al. Caspases from apoptotic myocytes degrade extracellular matrix: A novel remodeling paradigm. FASEB J. 19 1848-1850 (2005).
43. Simionescu, A., Philips, K. & Vyavahare, N. Elastin-derived peptides and TGF-beta1 induce osteogenic responses in smooth muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 334, 524-532 (2005).
44. Thomas, A. H., Edelman, E. R. & Stultz, C. M. Collagen fragments modulate innate immunity. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 232, 406-411 (2007).
45. Upadhyay, J., Aitken, K. J., Damdar, C., Bolduc, S. & Bagli, D. J. Integrins expressed with bladder extracellular matrix after stretch injury in vivo mediate bladder smooth muscle cell growth in vitro. J. Urol. 169, 750-755 (2003).
46. Faye, C., Chautard, E., Olsen, B. R. & Ricard-Blum, S. The first draft of the endostatin interaction network. J. Biol. Chem. 284, 22041-22047 (2009).
47. Faye, C. et al. Molecular interplay between endostatin, integrins, and heparan sulfate. J. Biol. Chem. 284, 22029-22040 (2009).
48. Gallucci, S. & Matzinger, P. Danger signals: SOS to the immune system. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 13, 114-119 (2001).
49. Rocha, L. B., Goissis, G. & Rossi, M. A. Biocompatibility of anionic collagen matrix as scaffold for bone healing. Biomaterials 23 449-456 (2002).
50. Arimura, H., Ouchi, T., Kishida, A. & Ohya, Y. Preparation of a hyaluronic acid hydrogel through polyion complex formation using cationic polylactide-based microspheres as a biodegradable crosslinking agent. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 16, 1347-1358 (2005).
51. Taguchi, T., Ohtsuka, A. & Murakami, T. Light and electron microscopic detection of anionic sites in the rat choroid plexus. Arch. Histol. Cytol. 61, 243-252 (1998).
52. Harvey, S. J. & Miner, J. H. Revisiting the glomerular charge barrier in the molecular era. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 17, 393-398 (2008).
53. Wang, A. Y. et al. Immobilization of growth factors on collagen scaffolds mediated by polyanionic collagen mimetic peptides and its effect on endothelial cell morphogenesis. Biomacromolecules 9 2929-2936 (2008).
54. Baumert, H. et al. Development of a seeded scaffold in the great omentum: Feasibility of an in vivo bioreactor for bladder tissue engineering. Eur. Urol. 52, 884-890 (2007).
55. Record, R. D. et al. In vivo degradation of 14C-labeled small intestinal submucosa (SIS) when used for urinary bladder repair. Biomaterials 22, 2653-2659 (2001).
56. Herz, D. B., Aitken, K. & Bagli, D. J. Collagen directly stimulates bladder smooth muscle cell growth in vitro: Regulation by extracellular regulated mitogen activated protein kinase. J. Urol. 170, 2072-2076 (2003).
57. Aitken, K. J. et al. Mechanotransduction of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 mitogen-activated protein kinase activity in smooth muscle is dependent on the extracellular matrix and regulated by matrix metalloproteinases. Am. J. Pathol. 169, 459-470 (2006).
58. Jones, P. L., Crack, J. & Rabinovitch, M. Regulation of tenascin-C, a vascular smooth muscle cell survival factor that interacts with the alpha v beta 3 integrin to promote epidermal growth factor receptor phosphorylation and growth. J. Cell Biol. 139, 279-293 (1997).
59. Jones, P. L., Jones, F. S., Zhou, B. & Rabinovitch, M. induction of vascular smooth muscle cell tenascin-C gene expression by denatured type I collagen is dependent upon a beta3 integrin-mediated mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and a 122-base pair promoter element. J. Cell Sci. 112, 435-445 (1999).
60. Royce, S. G., Tan, L., Koek, A. A. & Tang, M. L. effect of extracellular matrix composition on airway epithelial cell and fibroblast structure: implications for airway remodeling in asthma. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 102, 238-246 (2009).
61. Mauney, J. R., Kaplan, D. L. & Volloch, V. Matrix-mediated retention of osteogenic differentiation potential by human adult bone marrow stromal cells during ex vivo expansion. Biomaterials 25, 3233-3243 (2004).
62. Egles, C. et al. Denatured collagen modulates the phenotype of normal and wounded human skin equivalents. J. Invest. Dermatol. 128, 1830-1837 (2008).
63. Chun, S. Y. et al. Identification and characterization of bioactive factors in bladder submucosa matrix. Biomaterials 28 4251-4256 (2007).
64. Ingber, D. E. Mechanical signaling and the cellular response to extracellular matrix in angiogenesis and cardiovascular physiology. Circ. Res. 91, 877-887 (2002).
65. Parker, K. K. & ingber, D. E. Extracellular matrix, mechanotransduction and structural hierarchies in heart tissue engineering. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 362, 1267-1279 (2007).
66. Farhat, W. A. & Yeger, H. Does mechanical stimulation have any role in urinary bladder tissue engineering? World J. Urol. 26, 301-305 (2008).
67. Ekström, J., Henningsson, A. C., Henningsson, S. & Malmberg, L. Hyperplasia and hypertrophia in the denervated and distended rat urinary bladder. Acta Physiol. Scand. 122, 45-48 (1984).
68. Matsumoto, S., Kogan, B. A., Levin, R. M., Howard, P. S. & Macarak, E. J. Response of the fetal sheep bladder to urinary diversion. J. Urol. 169, 735-739 (2003).
69. Wei, W., Howard, P. S., Kogan, B. & Macarak, E. J. Altered extracellular matrix expression in the diverted fetal sheep bladder. J. Urol. 178, 1104-1107 (2007).
70. Roby, T., Olsen, S. & Nagatomi, J. Effect of sustained tension on bladder smooth muscle cells in three-dimensional culture. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 36, 1744-1751 (2008).
71. Boruch, A. V., Nieponice, A., Qureshi, I. R., Gilbert, T. W. & Badylak, S. F. Constructive remodeling of biologic scaffolds is dependent on early exposure to physiologic bladder filling in a canine partial cystectomy model. J. Surg. Res. doi:10.1016/j.jss.2009.02.014
72. Long, R. A. Strain-induced remodeling of urinary bladder smooth muscle. Thesis, University of Pittsburgh (2003).
73. Capolicchio, G., Aitken, K. J., Gu, J. X., Reddy, P. & Bägli, D. J. Extracellular matrix gene responses in a novel ex vivo model of bladder stretch injury. J. Urol. 165, 2235-2240 (2001).
74. Kim, B. S. & Mooney, D. J. Scaffolds for engineering smooth muscle under cyclic mechanical strain conditions. J. Biomech. Eng. 122, 210-215 (2000).
75. Kim, B. S., Nikolovski, J., Bonadio, J. & Mooney, D. J. Cyclic mechanical strain regulates the development of engineered smooth muscle tissue. Nat. Biotechnol. 17, 979-783 (1999).
76. Bulick, A. S. et al. Impact of endothelial cells and mechanical conditioning on smooth muscle cell extracellular matrix production and differentiation. Tissue Eng. Part A 15, 815-825 (2009).
77. Halachmi, S. et al. Role of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in stretch injury to bladder smooth muscle cells. Cell Tissue Res. 326, 149-158 (2006).
78. Matheson, L. A., Maksym, G. N., Santerre, J. P. & Labow, R. S. Differential effects of uniaxial and biaxial strain on U937 macrophage-like cell morphology: Influence of extracellular matrix type proteins. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 81, 971-981 (2007).
79. Kajbafzadeh, A. M. et al. Time-dependent neovasculogenesis and regeneration of different bladder wall components in the bladder acellular matrix graft in rats. J. Surg. Res. 139, 189-202 (2007).
80. Atala, A., Bauer, S. B., Soker, S., Yoo, J. J. & Retik, A. B. Tissue-engineered autologous bladders for patients needing cystoplasty. Lancet 367, 1241-1246 (2006).
81. Chiang, H. Y., Korshunov, V. A., Serour, A., Shi, F. & Sottile, J. Fibronectin is an important regulator of flow-induced vascular remodeling. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 29, 1074-1079 (2009).
82. McDevitt, C. A., wildey, G. M. & Cutrone, R. M. Transforming growth factor-beta1 in a sterilized tissue derived from the pig small intestine submucosa. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 67, 637-640 (2003).
83. Hodde, J. P., ernst, D. M. & Hiles, M. C. An investigation of the long-term bioactivity of endogenous growth factor in OASIS wound Matrix. J. Wound Care 14, 23-25 (2005).
84. Schultheiss, D. et al. Biological vascularized matrix (BioVaM): A new method for solving the perfusion problems in tissue engineering [German]. Urologe A 43, 1223-1228 (2004).
85. Schultheiss, D. et al. Biological vascularized matrix for bladder tissue engineering: Matrix preparation, reseeding technique and short-term implantation in a porcine model. J. Urol. 173, 276-280 (2005).
86. Noh, i. et al. Effects of crosslinking molecular weights in a hyaluronic acid-poly(ethylene oxide) hydrogel network on its properties. Biomed. Mater. 1, 116-123 (2006).
87. Kim, J. et al. Synthesis and characterization of matrix metalloprotease sensitive-low molecular weight hyaluronic acid based hydrogels. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 19, 3311-3318 (2008).
88. Zajac, A. L. & Discher, D. E. Cell differentiation through tissue elasticity-coupled, myosin-driven remodeling. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 20, 609-615 (2008).
89. Even-Ram, S., Artym, V. & Yamada, K. M. Matrix control of stem cell fate. Cell 126, 645-647 (2006).
90. Bajada, S., Mazakova, I., Richardson, J. B. & Ashammakhi, N. Updates on stem cells and their applications in regenerative medicine. J. Tissue Eng. Regen. Med. 2, 169-183 (2008).
91. Breitbach, M. et al. Potential risks of bone marrow cell transplantation into infarcted hearts. Blood 110, 1362-1369 (2007).
92. de Silva, R. et al. Intracoronary infusion of autologous mononuclear cells from bone marrow or granulocyte colony-stimulating factor-mobilized apheresis product may not improve remodelling, contractile function, perfusion, or infarct size in a swine model of large myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. 29, 1772-1782 (2008).
93. Berry, M. F. et al. Mesenchymal stem cell injection after myocardial infarction improves myocardial compliance. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 290, H2196-H2203 (2006).
94. Orlic, D. Adult bone marrow stem cells regenerate myocardium in ischemic heart disease. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 996, 152-157 (2003).
95. Perin, E. C. & Silva, G. V. Autologous cell-based therapy for ischemic heart disease: Clinical evidence, proposed mechanisms of action, and current limitations. Catheter Cardiovasc. Interv. 73, 281-288 (2009).
96. Silva, G. V. et al. Mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into an endothelial phenotype, enhance vascular density, and improve heart function in a canine chronic ischemia model. Circulation 111 150-156 (2005).
97. Kolossov, E. et al. Engraftment of engineered ES cell-derived cardiomyocytes but not BM cells restores contractile function to the infarcted myocardium. J. Exp. Med. 203, 2315-2327 (2006).
98. Kurzrock, E. A., Lieu, D. K., Degraffenried, L. A., Chan, C. W. & isseroff, R. R. Label-retaining cells of the bladder: Candidate urothelial stem cells. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 294, F1415-F1421 (2008).
99. Nguyen, M. M., Lieu, D. K., deGraffenried, L. A., Isseroff, R. R. & Kurzrock, E. A. Urothelial progenitor cells: Regional differences in the rat bladder. Cell Prolif. 40, 157-165 (2007).
100. Zhang, Y. et al. Urine derived cells are a potential source for urological tissue reconstruction. J. Urol. 180, 2226-2233 (2008).
101. Feil, G., Maurer, S., Nagele, U., Sievert, K. D. & Stenzl, A. Bioartificial urothelium generated from bladder washings. A future therapeutic option for reconstructive surgery [German]. Urologe A 47, 1091-1096 (2008).
102. Nagele, U. et al. In vitro investigations of tissue-engineered multilayered urothelium established from bladder washings. Eur. Urol. 54, 1414-1422 (2008).
103. Chan, K. S. et al. Identification, molecular characterization, clinical prognosis, and therapeutic targeting of human bladder tumor-initiating cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106, 14016-14021 (2009).
104. Drewa, T. Using hair-follicle stem cells for urinary bladder-wall regeneration. Regen. Med. 3, 939-944 (2008).
105. Drewa, T. et al. Comparison of growth of the follicle and mesenchymal stem cells to urothelial cells and fibroblasts on collagen scaffold [Polish]. Polim. Med. 38, 33-42 (2008).
106. Toma, J. G. et al. Isolation of multipotent adult stem cells from the dermis of mammalian skin. Nat. Cell Biol. 3, 778-784 (2001).
107. Anumanthan, G. et al. Directed differentiation of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells into bladder urothelium. J. Urol. 180, 1778-1783 (2008).
108. Shukla, D., Box, G. N., Edwards, R. A. & Tyson, D. R. Bone marrow stem cells for urologic tissue engineering. World J. Urol. 26, 341-349 (2008).
109. Oottamasathien, S. et al. Directed differentiation of embryonic stem cells into bladder tissue. Dev. Biol. 304, 556-566 (2007).
110. Thomas, J. C. et al. Temporal-spatial protein expression in bladder tissue derived from embryonic stem cells. J. Urol. 180 (4 Suppl.), 1784-1789 (2008).
111. Jack, G. S. et al. Processed lipoaspirate cells for tissue engineering of the lower urinary tract: Implications for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence and bladder reconstruction. J. Urol. 174, 2041-2045 (2005).
112. Long, R. A., Nagatomi, J., Chancellor, M. B. & Sacks, M. S. The role of MMP-I upregulation in the increased compliance in muscle-derived stem cell-seeded small intestinal submucosa. Biomaterials 27, 2398-2404 (2006).
113. Adelöw, C., Segura, T., Hubbell, J. A. & Frey, P. The effect of enzymatically degradable poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels on smooth muscle cell phenotype. Biomaterials 29, 314-326 (2008).
114. Dekel, B. et al. Human and porcine early kidney precursors as a new source for transplantation. Nat. Med. 9, 53-60 (2003).
115. Oottamasathien, S. et al. Bladder tissue formation from cultured bladder urothelium. Dev. Dyn. 235, 2795-2801 (2006).
116. Kinebuchi, Y. et al. Direct induction of layered tissues from mouse embryonic stem cells: Potential for differentiation into urinary tract tissue. Cell Tissue Res. 331, 605-615 (2008).
117. Smits, A. M., Van Vliet, P., Hassink, R. J., Goumans, M. J. & Doevendans, P. A. The role of stem cells in cardiac regeneration. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 9, 25-36 (2005).
118. Orlic, D. et al. Bone marrow cells regenerate infarcted myocardium. Nature 410, 701-705 (2001).
119. Laflamme, M. A. & Murry, C. E. Regenerating the heart. Nat. Biotechnol. 23, 845-856 (2005).
120. Huard, J. et al. Muscle-derived cell-mediated ex vivo gene therapy for urological dysfunction. Gene Ther. 9, 1617-1626 (2002).
121. Mitterberger, M. et al. Can autologous myoblasts be used as a potential bulking agent? BJU Int. 102, 1731-1736 (2008).
122. Mitterberger, M. et al. Adult stem cell therapy of female stress urinary incontinence. Eur. Urol. 53, 169-175 (2008).
123. Yanagiuchi, A., Miyake, H., Nomi, M., Takenaka, A. & Fujisawa, M. Modulation of the microenvironment by growth factors regulates the in vivo growth of skeletal myoblasts. BJU Int. 103, 1569-1573 (2009).
124. Bissell, M. J., Hall, H. G. & Parry, G. How does the extracellular matrix direct gene expression? J. Theor. Biol. 99, 31-68 (1982).
125. Engler, A. J., Sen, S., Sweeney, H. L. & Discher, D. E. Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification. Cell 126 677-689 (2006).
126. Adelöw, C. A. M. & Frey, P. Synthetic hydrogel matrices for guided bladder tissue regeneration. Methods Mol. Med. 140, 125-140 (2007).
127. Winer, J. P., Janmey, P. A., McCormick, M. E. & Funaki, M. Bone marrow-derived human mesenchymal stem cells become quiescent on soft substrates but remain responsive to chemical or mechanical stimuli. Tissue Eng. Part A 15, 147-154 (2009).
128. Ross, J. J. et al. Cytokine-induced differentiation of multipotent adult progenitor cells into functional smooth muscle cells. J. Clin. Invest. 116, 3139-3149 (2006).
129. Anderson, H. C. The role of cells versus matrix in bone induction. Connect. Tissue Res. 24, 3-12 (1990).
130. Chen, J. H., Yip, C. Y., Sone, E. D. & Simmons, C. A. Identification and characterization of aortic valve mesenchymal progenitor cells with robust osteogenic calcification potential. Am. J. Pathol. 174 1109-1119 (2009).
131. Furber, J. D. Extracellular glycation crosslinks: Prospects for removal. Rejuvenation Res. 9, 274-278 (2006).
132. Cozzolino, D. J., Cendron, M., Devore, D. P., Hoopes, P. J. The biological behavior of autologous collagen-based extracellular matrix injected into the rabbit bladder wall. Neurourol. Urodyn. 18 487-495 (1999).
133. Robert, L., Jacob, M. P. & Labat-Robert, J. Cell-matrix interactions in the genesis of arteriosclerosis and atheroma. Effect of aging. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 673, 331-341 (1992).
134. Dozmorov, M. G., Kropp, B. P., Hurst, R. E., Cheng, E. Y. & Lin, H. K. Differentially expressed gene networks in cultured smooth muscle cells from normal and neuropathic bladder. J. Smooth Muscle Res. 43 55-72 (2007).