The case for big government

The Case for Big Government (New in Paper)

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Madrick, Jeff ^a  

^a NONE

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References (212)

1. Fred Thompson, "Closed Case: Tax Cuts Mean Economic Growth," The Wall Street Journal, April 4, 2007, p. A22.
2. Dick Armey, speech, Feb. 1, 2007, http://www.freedomworks.org/informed/issues_template.php?issue_id=2889.
3. Stephen Rose, "What's Not the Matter with the Middle Class," The American Prospect, Sept. 4, 2006, http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?articleId=11943.
4. Milton Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962 2002), p. vi.
5. William Greider, The Secrets of the Temple: How the Federal Reserve Runs the Country (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1989), p. 218.
6. Alan S. Blinder, Economic Policy and Great Stagflation (New York: Elsevier Science & Technology Books, 1981).
7. Elizabeth Holmes and Amy Chozick, "Bruised in Iowa, Clinton, Romney Change Styles," The Wall Street Journal, January 7, 2008, p. A1.
8. Peter Lindert, Growing Public: Social Spending and Economic Growth Since the 18th Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 227.
9. Garry Wills, A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002).
10. Amartya Sen, Development As Freedom (New York: Knopf, 1999).
11. Martin Feldstein, "American Economic Policy in the 1980s: A Personal View," in American Economic Policy in the 1980s., ed. Martin Feld stein (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), p. 1.
12. Joel Slemrod and Jon Bakija, Taxing Ourselves: A Citizen's Guide to the Great Debate Over Tax Reform (Boston: MIT Press, 2001), pp. 130-31.
13. Such analysis was made possible by new data sets only created starting in the late 1970s.
14. Irving B. Kravis, Alan W. Heston, and Robert Summers (1978). "Real GDP Per Capita for More Than One Hundred Countries," Economic Journal, 88(350), pp. 215-42.
15. Joel Slemrod, "What Do Cross-Country Studies Teach about Government Involvement, Prosperity, and Economic Growth," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2:1995, pp. 373, 471.
16. Lindert, Growing Public, pp. 21, 30, 17.
17. Peter. H Lindert, "Welfare States, Markets and Efficiency: The Free Lunch Puzzle," working paper presented at Van Leer Jerusalem Institute, Dec. 2007, pp. 5-6.
18. Lindert, Growing Public, p. 233. pp. 227-35.
19. Lindert, "Wefare States," p. 5.
20. Jonas Pontusson, "Whither Social Europe?," Challenge Magazine, November/December 2006.
21. Lawrence Mishel, Sylvia Allegretto, and Jared Bernstein (eds.), The State of Working America, 2006/2007 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), Table 8.7, p. 334.
22. Lindert, Growing Public, p. 282.
23. Mishel et al., The State of Working America, pp. 332-42.
24. Price V. Fishback and Robert Higgs (eds.), Government and the American Economy: A New History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), p. 523.
25. The U.S. Bureau of the Census, The Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2008. Tables 460 and 461. http://www.r8ny.com/files/Federal%20Revenues%20and%20 Expenditures%201979%20to%202006.xls.
26. Long-term historical data based on Angus Maddison, Monitoring the World Economy, 1820-1992 (OECD, 1995).
27. The OECD Social Expenditures Database, 1980-1996, in Lindert, Growing Public, p. 13.
28. Armey, speech, Feb. 1, 2007.
29. Richard Brookhiser, What Would the Founders Do? Our Questions, Their Answers (New York: Basic Books, 2006).
30. Lewis K. Uhler, Setting Limits: Constitutional Control of Government (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, Inc., An Eagle Publishing Company, 1990).
31. Antonin Scalia, remarks at The Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., March 14, 2005.
32. Stephen Breyer, the Supreme Court justice, has written a fine defense of an opposing point of view, arguing that court decisions must deal with a changing society, in Active Liberty, Interpreting Our Democratic Constitution (New York: Random House, 2005).
33. Isaiah Berlin, "Two Concepts of Liberty," in Four Essays on Liberty, ed. I. Berlin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969).
34. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, p. 15.
35. Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom, (New York: Norton, 1999), p. 287.
36. Roosevelt's economic bill of rights. Samuel Rosenman, ed., The Public Papers & Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Vol XIII (New York: Harper, 1950), pp. 40-42
37. Foner, The Story of American Freedom.
38. Neil Gilbert, The Transformation of the Welfare State: The Silent Surrender of Public Responsibility (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
39. Jacob S. Hacker's The Divided Welfare State (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 179-269.
40. Gordon S. Wood, preface, in Liberty, Property and the Foundation of the American Constitution, eds.
41. Ellen Frankel Paul and Howard Dickman (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), p. xii.
42. Joyce Appleby, Arthur M. Schlesinger (eds.), Thomas Jefferson (The American President Series) (New York: Times Books, 2003), p. 97.
43. Frank Bourgin, The Great Challenge: The Myth of Laissez Faire in the Early Republic (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), p. 132.
44. Edward Chase Kirkland, History of American Economic Life (New York: Prentice Hall, 1969), pp. 83-85.
45. Allan Kulikoff, The Agrarian Origins of American Capitalism (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), p. 45.
46. Price Fishback, et al., Government and the American Economy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), pp. 94-115.
47. Bourgin, The Great Challenge, p. 135.
48. Appleby, Thomas Jefferson, p. 89
49. Bourgin, The Great Challenge, p. 135.
50. Wills, A Necessary Evil, p. 377.
51. Drew R. McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 110.
52. Bourgin, The Great Challenge, p. 169.
53. Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 1815-1846 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 39.
54. Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (New York: Norton, 2006), p. 520.
55. Sellers, The Market Revolution, p. 40.
56. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1991), pp. 320-21.
57. Robert P. Merges, "Who Owns the Charles River Bridge? Intellectual property and competition in the Soft-ware Industry," Boalt Working Papers in Public Law (paper 64, 1999), http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1066& context=boaltwp (last visited Nov. 11, 2007).
58. Sellers, The Market Revolution, pp. 367-69.
59. Lindert, Growing Public, pp. 88-99.
60. Foner, The Story of American Freedom, p. 59. Foner cautions that wage labor was an ambiguous term, since full-fledged industrial armies of manufacturing workers hardly existed in Lincoln's time. It was the historically small business that still dominated in the new economy then.
61. Alfred Chandler, Scale and Scope, the Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1990).
62. Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy.
63. Thomas Bender, A Nation Among Nations: America's Place in World History (New York: Hill & Wang, 2006), p. 139.
64. Garry Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America (New York: Simon and Schuster,, 1992), pp. 144-47.
65. Foner, The Story of American Freedom, p. 107.
66. Fishback, et al., Government and the American Economy, pp. 261-62.
67. Foner, The Story of American Freedom, p. 113.
68. Census Bureau, Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Times to the Present, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), Table Bb9-56.
69. Environmental Protection Agency website (http://www.epa.gov/msw/timeline_alt.htm [last visited Oct. 21, 2007]).
70. Laurie Garrett, Betrayal of Trust: The Collapse of Global Public Health (New York: Hyperion, 2001).
71. Fishback, et al., Government and the American Economy, pp. 276-78.
72. U.S. Department of Treasury Fact Sheet, http://www.treas.gov/education/fact-sheets/taxes/ustax.shtml
73. Foner, The Story of American Freedom, Chapter 8, pp. 163-93.
74. Ira Katz Nelson, Liberalism's Crooked Circle (Princeton, NJ: Prince-ton University Press, 1998).
75. David C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Paths of Innovation: Technological Change in Twentieth Century America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), chapter 4.
76. Foner, The Story of American Freedom, p. 192
77. Alicia Haydock Munnell and Steven A. Sass, Social Security and the Stock Market: How the Pursuit of Market Magic Shapes the System (Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research), pp. 24-27.
78. Jaocb Hacker, The Divided Welfare State: The Battle over Public and Private Social Benefits in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
79. United States Department of Veteran Affairs, http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm (last visited Dec. 4, 2007).
80. Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, http://www.eis-enhowermemorial.org/social-security.htm, (last visited Dec. 5, 2007).
81. Fishback, et al., Government and the American Economy, p. 519.
82. Mowery and Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth.
83. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom, pp. 31-32.
84. There is a large literature, especially among Austrian economists, on principles of coordination through markets. Some of this argues that government is inefficient at coordination. I find it remarkably unconvincing. There is a counterliterature revolving around clusters and informal networks in business.
85. Jeff Madrick, "Breaking the Stranglehold on Growth," Agenda for Shared Prosperity, Economic Policy Institute, June 27, 2007 (EPI Briefing Paper #192).
86. Descendants of Friedman since renounced any capabilities of such policies to influence the business cycle. In turn, there has been a more recent reaction against them.
87. Murray Rothbard, The Panic of 1819 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962).
88. Charles P. Kindleberger, Robert Z. Aliber, and Robert Solow, Manias, Panics, and Crashes: A History of Financial Crises (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2005).
89. There are many sources, including Alfred Chandler's remarkable economic histories, but one of the newer well-done works is Vaclav Smil, Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867-1914 and Their Lasting Impact (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
90. Stanley Lebergott, Pursuing Happiness: American Consumers in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
91. David C. C. Mowery and Nathan Rosenberg, Technology and the Pursuit of Economic Growth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), chapter 8.
92. Philip Seib, Rush Hour (Fort Worth: The Summit Group, 1994), p. 157.
93. Jane Brody, "America's Health: An Assessment," New York Times Magazine, Oct. 8th, 1989.
94. In general, Charles Seller's The Market Revolution. See Avner Offer for many related issues and, in particular, the regard economy, as he calls it, The Challenge of Affluence: Self-control and Well-being in the United States Since 1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).
95. Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
96. "Outsourcing of Manufacturing Employment," http://www.nikutai-to-kageboushi.com/outsourc.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2008.
97. Robert Samuelson, who has persistently and strenuously claimed this. The Good Life and Its Discontents: The American Dream in the Age of Entitlement (New York: Random House, 1995).
98. Anthony Carnevale and Stephen Rose, Education for What? The Office Economy (Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1998).
99. the original paper, Paul David, "The Computer and the Dynamo: The Modern Productivity Paradox in a Not-Too-Distant Mirror," in Technology and Productivity: The Challenge for Economic Policy (OECD, 1991).
100. I have summarized some of this research and provided my own views in The End of Affluence (New York: Random House, 1995), and Why Economies Grow (New York: Basic Books/Century Foundation, 2002).
101. Richard R. Nelson and Gavin Wright, "The Rise and Fall of American Technological Leadership: The Postwar Era in Historical Perspective," Journal of Economic Literature, December, 1992, p. 1939.
102. Jared Bernstein, "Real Wages Decline in 2007," Economic Policy Institute, January 16, 2008 | EPI Issue Brief #240. http://www.epi.org/content.cfm/ib240
103. In general, the data cited here are conventional government statistics. The sources are the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the Bureau of Economic Analysis, and the U.S. Census Bureau, which compiles statistics such as the Consumer Population Survey for the BLS. I will not repeatedly cite sources for forthcoming statistics, unless they were dependent on analysis by individual economists that may be controversial.
104. Susan Faludi, Stiffed: The Betrayal of the American Man (New York: William Morrow, 1991);
105. Frank Levy, Dollars and Dreams: The Changing American Income Distribution (New York: Russell Sage, 1987).
106. Robert Haveman and Timothy Smeeding, "The Role of Education in Social Mobility," and "Opportunity in America,".
107. Isabell Sawhill and Sara McLanahan, issue of The Future of Children (Princeton and Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson School of Public Policy and International Affairs and Brookings Institution, 2006), pp. 125-49.
108. All data cited are gathered and published by the Bureau of Economic Analysis of the Commerce Department, Bureau of Labor Statistics of the Labor Department, or the Bureau of the Census.
109. Jeff Madrick and Nikolaos Papanikolaou, The Stagnation of Males Wages (New York: Schwartz Center for Economic Policy Analysis, 2008) (http://www.newschool.edu/cepa/).
110. Angus Maddison, Dynamic Forces in Capitalist Development: A Long-Run Comparative View (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
111. Isabel Sawhill and John E. Morton, "Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well?" in Economic Mobility Project: The Pew Charitable Trusts (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2007). http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/papers/2007/05useconomics_morton/05useconomics_morton.pdf.
112. Frank Levy and Peter Temlin, "Inequality and Institutions on 20th Century America," Industrial Performance Center Working Paper Series (Boston: Department of Economics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007).
113. Lee Rainwater and Timothy Smeeding, Poor Kids in a Rich Country: America's Children in Comparative Perspective (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2003).
114. Marque-Luisa Miringoff and Sandra Opycke, America's Social Health, Putting Social Issues Back on the Agenda (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2008).
115. Smeeding and Rainwater, Poor Kids in a Rich Country; The Justice Policy Institute, "Cellblocks or Classrooms? The Funding of Higher Education and Corrections and Its Impact on African American Men," 2002 (www.justicepolicy.org).
116. Sawhill and John, "Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well?"
117. Thomas Piketty and Emmanuel Saez, "Income Inequality in the United States, 1913-1998." The Quarterly Journal of Economics. Vol. CXVIII, Issue 1, 2003, pp. 1-39.
118. Richard G. Wilkinson offers a provocative if contentious overview regarding health and inequality, The Impact of Inequality: How To Make Sick Societies Healthier (New York: The New Press, 2005).
119. Avner Offer, The Challenge of Affluence for an excellent and balanced overview of issues concerning affluence and happiness.
120. Samuelson, The Good Life.
121. Gordon S. Wood, Radicalism of the American Revolution, (New York: Knopf, 1993), p. 123.
122. Kevin M. Murphy and Robert H. Topel for the classic if controversial paper, "The Value of Life, the Economic Benefits of Longevity" (Chicago: Stigler Center for the Study of the Economy and the State, University of Chicago, 2006), http://www.chicagogsb.edu/capideas/feb06/1.aspx (last visited March 11, 2007).
123. The Bureau of Labor Statistics offsets automobile inflation for improvements in quality, such as durability. But for the most part, American consumers pay for the improved quality.
124. The report by the Boskin Commission in 1997 is the leading paper on this subject. There have been many rebuttals.
125. Jeff Madrick, "The Cost of Living: A New Myth," New York Review of Books, March 6, 1997.
126. "The Symposium on the Boskin Commission Report A Decade Later," International Productivity Monitor, Number 12, Spring 2006, Ottawa; particularly two pieces by economist Jack Triplet.
127. Elizabeth Warren and Amelia Warren Tyagi, The Two-Income Trap: Why Middle-class Mothers and Fathers Are Going Broke (New York: Basic Books, 2003).
128. Madrick, Why Economies Grow, p. 223.
129. Robert Haveman and Timothy Smeeding, The Role of Higher Education in Social Mobility, The Future of Children, Vol. 16, No. 2, Opportunity in America (October 2006), pp. 125-50.
130. Jeff Madrick, William Milberg, and Melissa Mahoney, State Market Relations for a Globalized Economy (Schwartz Center for Economic Policy Analysis, Policy Notes, April 2006).
131. Mishel et al., The State of Working America, 2006/2007, pp. 148-51.
132. Madrick and Papanikoloaou, The Stagnation of Male Wages.
133. Mishel, et al., The State of Working America 2006/2007, p. 119.
134. A classic work on this issue is by two law professors, Lucian Beb chuk and Jesse Fried, Pay Without Performance: The Unfulfillfed Promise of Executive Compensation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004).
135. Lucian Bebchuck and Yaniv Grinstein, "The Growth of Executive Pay," Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 21, 2005, pp. 283-303.
136. Wilkinson, The Impact of Inequality, in particular, the first three chapters.
137. Mishel, et al., The State of Working America, p. 111.
138. Dean Baker, The Productivity to Paycheck Gap: What the Data Show, The Real Cause of Lagging Wages (Washington D.C.: Center for Economic and Policy Research [CEPR], 2007).
139. Haveman and Smeeding provide the best survey of the evidence, The Role of Higher Education in Social Mobility, pp. 125-50.
140. William Chase, New York Times Op-Ed, September 5th, 2006.
141. Jolene Kirschenman and Kathryn M. Neckerman, "We'd Love to Hire Them, But. . . . The Meaning of Race for Employers," in The Urban Underclass, eds.
142. Paul E. Peterson and Christopher Jencks (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1991).
143. Amanda E. Lewis, Maria Krysnan, Sharon M. Collins, Korie Edwards, and Geoff Ward, "Institutional patterns and Transformations: Race and Ethnicity in Housing, Education, Labor Markets, Religion and Criminal Justice," in The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity, eds.
144. Maria Krysnan and Amanda E. Lewis (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2004), pp. 67-119.
145. Henry Farber, "What Do We Know About Job Loss in the United States?" Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Economic Perspectives, Second Quarter, 2005.
146. Warren and Tyagi, Two-Income Trap. Among the recent works
147. Jacob Hacker, The Great Risk Shift (New York: Oxford University Press), 2006;
148. Robin Blackburn, Age Shock: How Finance Is Failing Us (London:Verso, 2006);
149. Teresa Ghilarducci, When I'm Sixty-Four: The Plot against Pensions and the Plan to Save Them (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008).
150. James Heckman, "The Productivity Argument for Investing in Children," Committee for Economic Development, Invest in Kids Working Group, Working Paper No. 5., Washington D.C., 2004;
151. Janet Currie, "Early Childhood Education Programs," Journal of Economic Perspectives, Spring, 2001, pp. 213-38.
152. Robert G. Lynch, "Exceptional Returns, Economic, Fiscal and Social Benefits of Investment in Early Childhood Development," Economic Policy Institute, Washington D.C., 2004.
153. Wilkinson, The Impact of Inequality, in particular, p. 80.
154. Kevin Phillips, American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century (New York: Viking, 2006), pp. 117-21.
155. Dynan, Karen E. and Donald L. Kohn, "The Rise in U.S. Household Indebtedness: Causes and Consequences," FEDS Working Paper No. 2007-37 (August 8, 2007).
156. Robert J. Samuelson, The Good Life and Its Discontents: The American Dream in the Age of Entitlement (New York: Knopf, 1997).
157. Steve Rose, The Trouble with Class Interest Populism, Progressive Policy Institute, April 25th, 2006.
158. "Solar Grand Plan," Scientific American, Jan. 2008, Vol. 298, Issue 1, pp. 64-73.
159. Alan Blinder, Economic Policy and the Great Stagflation (Burlington, MA: Academic Press, 1980).
160. George A. Akerlof, William T. Dickens, and George L. Perry, The Macroeconomics of Low Inflation, Brookings Paper on Economic Activity, 1996 (1), pp. 1-59.
161. Daniel Aaronson and Bhashkar Mazumder, "Intergenerational Economic Mobility in the U.S., 1940 to 2000," Working paper 2005-12, Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, June 2006.
162. Haveman and Smeeding, The Role of Higher Education in Social Mobility, pp. 125-50.
163. Alexander Keyssar, Stephan Thernstrom, and Robert Fogel (eds.), Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
164. Mishel et al., State of Working America, p. 250.
165. Edward N. Wolff (ed.), International Perspectives on Household Wealth (Northhampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006).
166. Edward N. Wolff and Richard C. Leone, Top Heavy: Increasing Inequality of Wealth in America and What Can Be Done about It (New York: New Press, 2001).
167. Avner Offer's The Challenge of Affluence, pp. 233-69.
168. Congressional Budget Office, Budget Options, chapter 3, pp. 255-59, February, 2007.
169. Joel Friedman, The Decline of Corporate Income Tax Revenues, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, October 24, 2003, www.cbpp.org/10-16-03tax.htm (last accessed May 19, 2008).
170. Tom Redburn, "The Real Climate Debate: To Cap or To Tax," The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/02/us/politics/04web-redburn.html?_r=1&oref=slogin (Accessed Nov. 3, 2007).
171. As noted earlier, Lindert argues that a high sales tax-valued added tax-in Europe has contributed substantially to growth by encouraging savings (Growing Public, p. 131).
172. Robert McIntyre, Citizens for Tax Justice, Washington D.C..
173. Infrastructure Management Group and Government Finance Group, An Evaluation of the TE-045 Innovative Finance Research Initiative, prepared for the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), October 1996. The job estimate is from the FHWA itself, not the consultants, and is cited in the section on "Impacts of Increased Investment on Job Creation," http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/innovativefinance/evalch3.htm.
174. James Heckman and L. Lochner, "Rethinking Education and Training Policy: Understanding the Sources of Skill Formation in a Modern Economy," in Securing the Future: Investing in Children From Birth to College, eds. S. Danziger and J. Waldfogel (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000).
175. Robert Lynch, Enriching Children, Enriching the Nation: Public Investment in High-Quality Prekindergarten (Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute, 2007).
176. William Dickens and Charles Buschnagel, "Dynamic Estimates of Fiscal Effects of Investing in Preschool Education" (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2007).
177. Fishback, Government and the American Economy.
178. Benjamin M. Friedman and Michael C. Jensen, Foundations of Organization Strategy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983);
179. Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches, Technological Creativity and Economic Progress (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
180. Mishel et al., State of Working America 2006/2007, p. 110.
181. Robert J. Gordon and Ian Dew-Becker, "Unresolved Issues in the rise of Inequality in America," paper presented at the AEA meetings, Chicago, January, 2007 (http://faculty-web.at.northwestern.edu/economics/gordon/ChiAEA_RJG_Penner_RJGrevIDBcomments_070102.pdf (last visited Nov. 25, 2007).
182. Lance Taylor, Scepa Working Paper Number, 2007.
183. Aaronson and Mazumder, "Intergenerational Economic Mobility . . . "
184. Mishel, et al., State of Working America 2006/2007, p. 190.
185. Robert Pollin, "What is a Living Wage? Considerations from Santa Monica, Ca.," pollin@econs.umass.edu (last visited Jan, 4, 2008).
186. Mishel, et al., State of Working America 2006/2007, p. 183.
187. Chirag Mehta and Nok Theodore, "Undermining the Right to Organize: Employer Behavior During Union Representation Campaigns (Chicago: University of Illinois at Chicago, 2005).
188. Lawrence D. Bobo, "Inequalities that Endure? Racial Ideology, American Politics, and the Peculiar Role of the Social Sciences," in The Changing Terrain of Race and Ethnicity, eds. Krysnan and Lewis, p. 33.
189. Kirschenman and Neckerman, "We'd Love to Hire Them."
190. William Bowen and Derek Bok, The Shape of the River (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
191. For the success of the Swedish system of wage cooperation,Pontusson, "Whither Social Europe?"
192. Edward M. Kennedy, American Back on Track (New York: Viking, 2006), p. 98.
193. Lindert, Growing Public, pp. 254-57.
194. Marcia Meyers and Janet Gornick, Work/Family Reconciliation Policies for the United States: Lesson from Abroad (University of Washington & City University of New York, 2004).
195. Jeffrey Stoddard, Robert F. St. Peter, and Paul Newacheck, "Health insurance and ambulatory care for Children," New England Journal of Medicine, 330(20), 1421-25.
196. Peter S. Hussey, Gerard F. Anderson, Robin Osborn, Colin Feek, Vivienne McLaughlin, Jon Miller, and Arnold Epstein, "How Does the Quality of Care Compare in Five Countries?" Health Affairs, Vol. 23, Issue 3, 2004.
197. Kennedy, American Back on Track, pp. 132-33.
198. U.S. Department of Education, Empty Promises: The Myth of College Access in America: A Report of the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance,Washington, D.C., June 2002.
199. Haveman and Smeeding, The Role of Higher Education in Social Mobility, pp. 125-50.
200. Mark Dudzic and Adolph Reed Jr., "Free for All: Free Tuition at All Public Colleges and Universities for Students Who Meet Admission Standards," The Nation, February 5, 2004.
201. American Society of Civil Engineers. 2005. Report Card for America's Infrastructure, available at www .asce.org/reportcard/2005/index.cfm (last visited Feb. 5, 2008).
202. the website of the Energy Information Administration, United States Department of Energy (www.eia.doe.gov).
203. U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), Federal Highway Administration, and Federal Transit Administration, 2006 Status of the Nation's Highways, Bridges, and Transit: Executive Summary. Washington, 2006, p. vi. Available at: www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/2006cpr/pdfs/esblue.pdf (last visited Feb. 5, 2008).
204. sources above and in general, Congressional Budget Office, Trends in Public Spending on Transportation and Water Infrastructure, 1956 to 2004 (Washington, D.C.: August 2007). The data in the CBO report comes from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and the Census Bureau.
205. www.apolloalliance.org
206. Alicia H. Munnell and Steven A. Sass, Working Longer: The Answer to the Retirement Income Challenge (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2008); Teresa Ghilarducci, When I'm Sixty-Four: The Plot against Pensions and the Plan to Save Them (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008);
207. Robin Blackburn, Age Shock, How Finance is Failing Us (London: Verso, 2007).
208. National Employment Law Project, "Changing Workforce, Changing Economy, State Unemployment Insurance Reforms for the 21st Century," 2004.
209. Greg Mastel, "Why We Should Expand Trade Adjustment Assistance," Challenge Magazine, September/October, 2006.
210. Jeffrey H. Birnbaum, "The Road to Riches Is Called K Street, Lobbying Firms Hire More, Pay More, Charge More to Influence Government," Washington Post, June 22, 2005, p. A01
211. Alan Brinkley, End of Reform: New Deal Liberalism in Recession and War (New York: Knopf, 1996), p. 257.
212. Jeff Madrick, Breaking the Stranglehold on Growth,The Economic Policy Institute, EPI Briefing Paper #192, June 22, 2007.