Should burden of disease estimates include cannabis use as a risk factor for psychosis?

PLoS Medicine

Volumn 6, Issue 9, 2009, Pages

  Degenhardt, Louisa ^a   Hall, Wayne D ^b   Lynskey, Michael ^c   McGrath, John ^b   McLaren, Jennifer ^a   Calabria, Bianca ^a   Whiteford, Harvey ^b   Vos, Theo ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^c WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS ADDICTION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HUMAN; PSYCHOSIS; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; ARTICLE; COST OF ILLNESS; EPIDEMIOLOGY; METHODOLOGY; OBSERVATION;

CANNABIS;

CANNABIS; CONFOUNDING FACTORS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); COST OF ILLNESS; HUMANS; OBSERVATION; PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 70349637669     PISSN: 15491277     EISSN: 15491676     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000133     Document Type: Review

References (66)

1. Degenhardt L, Hall WD (2001) The association between psychosis and problematic drug use among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. Psychol Med 31: 659-668. (Pubitemid 32421967)
2. Tien AY, Anthony JC (1990) Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. J Nerv Ment Dis 178: 473-480.
3. Wheatley M (1998) The prevalence and relevance of substance use in detained schizophrenic patients. J Forensic Psychiatr 9: 114-129.
4. Barbee JG, Clark PD, Crapanzo MS, Heintz GC, Kehoe CE (1989) Alcohol and substance abuse among schizophrenic patients presenting to an emergency psychiatry service. J Nerv Ment Dis 177: 400-417.
5. World Bank (1993) World development report 1993: investing in health. New York: World Bank.
6. Lopez AD, Mathers C, Ezzati M, Jamison D, Murray C (2006) Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 367: 1747-1757. (Pubitemid 43767064)
7. Hill AB (1965) The environment and disease: association or causation? Proceed Roy Soc Medicine 58: 295-300.
8. Degenhardt L, Hall WD, Lynskey M, Warner- Smith M (2004) Illicit drug use. In: Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray C, eds. Comparative quantification of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. Geneva: World Health Organisation. pp 1109-1176.
9. Degenhardt L, Hall WD (2006) Is cannabis a contributory cause of psychosis? Can J Psychiatry 51: 556-565.
10. Moore T, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes T, Jones PB, et al. (2007) Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 370: 319-328. (Pubitemid 47094993)
11. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Witton J, Murray RM (2004) Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence. Br J Psychiatry 184: 110-117. (Pubitemid 38186851)
12. Hall WD (1998) Cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Rev 17: 433-444.
13. Henquet C, Di Forti M, Morrison PD, Kuepper R, Murray R (2008) Gene-environment interplay between cannabis and psychosis. Schizophr Bull 34: 1111-1121.
14. Ajdacic-Gross V, Lauber C, Warnke I, Hacker H, Murray RM, et al. (2009) Changing incidence of psychotic disorders among the young in Zurich. Schizophrenia Res 95: 9-18. (Pubitemid 47313630)
15. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M (2003) Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend 71: 37-48. (Pubitemid 36734857)
16. Hickman M, Vickerman P, MacLeod J, Kirkbride J, Jones PB (2007) Cannabis and schizophrenia: model projections of the impact of the rise in cannabis use on historical and future trends in schizophrenia in England and Wales. Addiction 102: 597-606. (Pubitemid 46398826)
17. Zammit S, Moore TM, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes T, Jones P, et al. (2008) Effects of cannabis use on outcomes of psychotic disorders: systematic review. Br J Psychiatry 193: 357-363.
18. Hambrecht M, Haefner H (2000) Cannabis, vulnerability, and the onset of schizophrenia: an epidemiological perspective. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 34: 468-475. (Pubitemid 30389416)
19. Hall W, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M (2001) The health and psychological consequences of cannabis use. Canberra: Australian Publishing Service.
20. Julien R (2001) A primer of drug action. New York: Worth Publishers.
21. Murray RM, Morrison PD, Henquet C, Di Forti M (2007) Cannabis, the mind and society: the hash realities. Nat Rev Neurosci 8: 885-895. (Pubitemid 350006219)
22. Boucher AA, Arnold JC, Duffy L, Schofield PR, Micheau J, et al. (2007) Heterozygous neuregulin 1 mice are more sensitive to the behavioural effects of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 192: 325-336. (Pubitemid 46705399)
23. Gorriti MA, Rodriguez de Fonseca F, Navarro M, Palomo T (1999) Chronic (-)-delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol treatment induces sensitization to the psychomotor effects of amphetamine in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 365: 133-142. (Pubitemid 29070757)
24. Vigano D, Guidali C, Petrosino S, Realini N, Rubino T, et al. (2009) Involvement of the endocannabinoid system in phencyclidine-induced cognitive deficits modelling schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 12: 599-614.
25. Bell D (1973) The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 29: 35-40.
26. Bhattacharyya S, Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Martin-Santos R, Nosarti C, et al. (2009) Delta- 9-tetrahydrocannabinol modulates medial temporal and striatal functions in humans: a neural basis for the effects of cannabis on learning and psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66: 442-451.
27. Borgwardt S, Allen P, Bhattacharyya S, Fusar- Poli P, Crippa JA, et al. (2008) Neural basis of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol: effects during response intervention. Biol Psychiatry 64: 966-973.
28. D'Souza DC, Perry EB, MacDougall L, Ammerman Y, Cooper T, et al. (2004) The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology 29: 1558-1572. (Pubitemid 38982249)
29. D'Souza DC, Cho HS, Perry E, Krystal JH (2004) Cannabinoid 'model' psychosis, dopamine-cannabinoid interactions and implications for schizophrenia. In: Castle D, Murray R, eds. Marijuana and madness: psychiatry and neurobiology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
30. Thomas H (1996) A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend 42: 201-207. (Pubitemid 26356554)
31. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Ridder EM (2005) Tests of causal linkages between cannabis use and psychotic symptoms. Addiction 100: 354-366. (Pubitemid 40363442)
32. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Poulton R, Murray R, Caspi A, et al. (2002) Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. Br Med J 325: 1212-1213. (Pubitemid 35398785)
33. Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, Kaplan C, Lieb R, et al. (2005) Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. Br Med J 330: 11-14. (Pubitemid 40070467)
34. van Os J, Bak M, Hanssen M, Bijl RV, de Graaf R, et al. (2002) Cannabis use and psychosis: a longitudinal population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 156: 319-327. (Pubitemid 34857999)
35. Zammit S, Lewis G (2004) Exploring the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Addiction 99: 1353-1355. (Pubitemid 39330942)
36. Schneier RR, Siris SG (1987) A review of psychoactive substance use and abuse in schizophrenia: patterns of drug choice. J Nerv Ment Dis 175: 641-652.
37. Smith FR, Hucker S (1994) Schizophrenia and substance abuse. Br J Psychiatry 165: 13-21.
38. Warner R, Taylor D, Wright J, Sloat A, Springett G, et al. (1994) Substance use among the mentally ill: prevalence, reasons for use, and effects on illness. Am J Orthopsychiatry 64: 30-39. (Pubitemid 24033519)
39. Green B, Young R, Kavanagh D (2005) Cannabis use and misuse prevalence among people with psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 187: 306-313. (Pubitemid 41442380)
40. Anthony JC, Helzer JE (1991) Syndromes of drug abuse and dependence. In: Robins LN, Regier DA, eds. Psychiatric disorders in America: the Epidemiologic Catchment Area. New York: Free Press.
41. Reiger DA, Farmer ME, Rae DS, Locke BZ, Keith SJ, et al. (1990) Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse: results from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) Study. JAMA 264: 2511-2518.
42. Cuffel B, J, Heinthoff KA, Lawson W (1993) Correlates of patterns of substance abuse among patients with schizophrenia. Hosp Community Psychiatry 44: 247-251. (Pubitemid 23092761)
43. Andreasson S, Engstrom A, Allebeck P, Rydberg U (1987) Cannabis and schizophrenia: a longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 2: 1483-1486. (Pubitemid 18013741)
44. Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, McClay J, Murray R, et al. (2005) Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 57: 1117-1127. (Pubitemid 40615773)
45. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ , Swain- Campbell NR (2003) Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychol Med 33: 15-21. (Pubitemid 36113396)
46. Phillips LJ, Curry C, Yung AR, Yuen HP, Adlard S, et al. (2003) Cannabis use is not associated with the development of psychosis in an 'ultra' high-risk group. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 36: 800-806.
47. Rossler W, Reicher-Rössler A, Angst J, Murray R, Gamma A, et al. (2007) Psychotic experiences in the general population: a twenty-year prospective community study. Schizophr Res 92: 1-14. (Pubitemid 46561217)
48. Eaton WW, Romanoski A, Anthony JC, Nestadt G (1991) Screening for psychosis in the general population with a self-report interview. J Nerv Ment Dis 179: 689-693.
49. Engqvist U, Rydelius PA (2008) The occurrence and nature of early signs of schizophrenia and psychotic mood disorders among former child and adolescent psychiatric patients followed into adulthood. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health 2: 30.
50. Verdoux H, Gindre C, Sorbara F, Tournier M, Swendsen J (2002) Cannabis use and the expression of psychosis vulnerability in daily life. Eur Psychiatry 17: 180S-180S.
51. Degenhardt L, Tennant C, Gilmour S, Schofield D, Nash L, et al. (2007) The temporal dynamics of relationships between cannabis, psychosis and depression among young adults with psychotic disorders: findings from a ten-month prospective study. Psychol Med 37: 927-934. (Pubitemid 46993593)
52. Young N, Loannidis J, Al-Ubaydli O (2008) Why current publication practices may distort science. PLoS Medicine 5: e201. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed. 0050201.
53. MacLeod J, Oaks R, Copello A, Crome I, Egger M, et al. (2004) Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: a systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies. Lancet 363: 1579-1588. (Pubitemid 38625660)
54. Doll R (1998) Uncovering the effects of smoking: historical perspective. Stat Methods Med Res 7: 87-117.
55. Eysenck SB (1980) The causes and effects of smoking. London: Temple Smith.
56. Brandt AM (2007) The cigarette century. New York: Basic Books.
57. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S (2001) Epidemiology- is it time to call it a day? In J Epidemiol 30: 1-11.
58. Smith GD (2001) Reflections on the limitations to epidemiology. J Clin Epidemiol 54: 325-331.
59. Lynskey MT, Heath AC, Bucholz KK, Slutske WS (2003) Escalation of drug use in early-onset cannabis users vs co-twin controls. JAMA 289: 427-433.
60. Vineis P, Kriebel D (2006) Causal models in epidemiology: past inheritance and genetic future. Environmental Health 5: 21.
61. Andrews G, Issakidis C, Sanderson K, Corry J, Lapsley H (2004) Utilising survey data to inform public policy: comparison of the cost-effectiveness of treatment of ten mental disorders. Br J Psychiatry 184: 526-533. (Pubitemid 38725713)
62. Andrews G, Sanderson K, Corry J, Issakidis C, Lapsley H (2003) Cost-effectiveness of current and optimal treatment for schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 183: 427-435. (Pubitemid 37357575)
63. Saha S, Barendregt JJ, Vos T, Whiteford H, McGrath J (2008) Modelling disease frequency measures in schizophrenia epidemiology. Schizophr Res 140: 246-256.
64. Begg S, Vos T, Barker DC, Stanley L, Lopez A (2008) Burden of disease and injury in Australia in the new millennium: measuring health loss from diseases, injuries and risk factors. Med J Aust 188: 36-40.
65. Begg S, Vos T, Barker B, Stevenson C, Stanley L, et al. (2007) The burden of disease and injury in Australia 2003. Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
66. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray R, eds (2004) Comparative quantification of health risks: global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organisation.