Psychological and social sequelae of cannabis and other illicit drug use by young people: A systematic review of longitudinal, general population studies

Lancet

Volumn 363, Issue 9421, 2004, Pages 1579-1588

  Macleod, John ^a   Oakes, Rachel ^a   Copello, Alex ^a   Crome, Prof Ilana ^b   Egger, Prof Matthias ^c,d   Hickman, Mathew ^e   Oppenkowski, Thomas ^a   Stokes Lampard, Helen ^a   Smith, George Davey ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

^b KEELE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BERN   (Switzerland)

^e IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS; COCAINE; ILLICIT DRUG;

BEHAVIOR DISORDER; CONDUCT DISORDER; DEPRESSION; DISTRESS SYNDROME; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG EXPOSURE; DRUG USE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EDUCATION; HARM REDUCTION; HEALTH CARE MANAGEMENT; HUMAN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MENTAL DISEASE; POPULATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROPHYLAXIS; PSYCHOSOCIAL DISORDER; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; QUALITY CONTROL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOPATHY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TECHNIQUE;

EID: 2342443151     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16200-4     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Aust R, Sharp C, Goulden C. Prevalence of drug use: key findings from the 2001/2002 British Crime Survey, findings 182. London: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Directorate, 2002.
2. Hall W, Solowij N. Adverse effects of cannabis. Lancet. 325:1998;1611-1616
3. Solowij N. Cannabis and cognitive functioning. 1998;Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
4. Lenton S. Cannabis as a gateway drug: comments on Fergusson and Horwood. Addiction. 96:2001;511-515
5. Juni P, Witschi A, Bloch R, Egger M. The hazards of scoring the quality of clinical trials for meta-analysis. JAMA. 282:1999;1054-1060
6. Resnick MD, Bearman PS, Blum RW, et al. Protecting adolescents from harm: findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. JAMA. 278:1997;823-832
7. Dornbusch SM, Lin I-C, Munroe PT, Bianchi AJ. Adolescent polydrug use and violence in the United States. Int J Adolesc Med Health. 11:1999;197-219
8. Guy SM, Smith GM, Bentler PM. Adolescent socialization and use of licit and illicit substances - impact on adult health. Psychol Health. 8:1993;463-487
9. Stein JA, Smith GM, Guy SM, Bentler PM. Consequences of adolescent drug use on young adult job behavior and job satisfaction. J Appl Psychol. 78:1993;463-474
10. Brook JS, Cohen P, Brook DW. Longitudinal study of co-occurring psychiatric disorders and substance use. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 37:1998;322-330
11. Brook JS, Whiteman M, Finch SJ, Cohen P. Young adult drug use and delinquency: childhood antecedents and adolescent mediators. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 35:1996;1584-1592
12. Brook JS, Richter L, Whiteman M, Cohen P. Consequences of adolescent marijuana use: incompatibility with the assumption of adult roles. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr. 125:1999;193-207
13. Brunswick AF, Messeri P. Drugs, lifestyle, and health: a longitudinal study of urban black youth. Am J Public Health. 76:1986;5257
14. Brunswick AF, Messeri PA. Life stage, substance use and health decline in a community cohort of urban African Americans. J Addict Dis. 18:1999;53-71
15. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Does cannabis use encourage other forms of illicit drug use? Addiction. 95:2000;505-520
16. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood LJ. The short-term consequences of early onset cannabis use. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 24:1996;499-512
17. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Swain-Campbell N. Cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence and young adulthood. Addiction. 97:2002;1123-1135
18. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ. Early onset cannabis use and psychosocial adjustment in young adults. Addiction. 92:1997;279-296
19. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Swain-Campbell NR. Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychol Med. 33:2003;15-21
20. Silva PA, Stanton WR. From child to adult: the Dunedin multi disciplinary health and development study. 1996;Oxford University Press, Auckland
21. McGee R, Williams S, Poulton R, Moffitt T. A longitudinal study of cannabis use and mental health from adolescence to early adulthood. Addiction. 95:2000;491-503
22. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Poulton R, Murray R, Caspi A, Moffit TE. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ. 325:2002;1212-1213
23. Brook JS, Balka EB, Whiteman M. The risks for late adolescence of early adolescent marijuana use. Am J Public Health. 89:1999;1549-1554
24. Newcomb MD, Scheier LM, Bentler PM. Effects of adolescent drug use on adult mental health: a prospective study of a community sample. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 1:1993;241
25. Newcomb MD, Bentler PM. Consequences of adolescent drug use: impact on the lives of young adults. 1988;Sage Publications Inc, Newbury Park, CA, USA
26. Newcomb MD. Psychosocial predictors and consequences of drug use: a developmental perspective within a prospective study. J Addict Dis. 16:1997;51-89
27. Newcomb MD, Vargas-Carmona J, Galaif ER. Drug problems and Psychological Distress among a community sample of adults: predictors, consequences, or confound? J Comm Psychol. 27:1999;405-429
28. Kandel D. Stages in adolescent involvement in drug use. Science. 190:1975;912-914
29. Kandel D, Chen K, Gill A. The impact of drug-use on earnings-A life-span perspective. Social Forces. 74:1995;243-270
30. Friedman AS, Kramer S, Kreisher C, Granick S. The relationships of substance abuse to illegal and violent behavior, in a community sample of young adult African American men and women (gender differences). J Subst Abuse. 8:1996;379-402
31. Kaestner R. New estimates of the effect of marijuana and cocaine use on wages. Industr Labor Relat Rev. 47:1994;454-470
32. Windle M. Mate similarity, heavy substance use and family history of problem drinking among young adult women. J Stud Alcohol. 58:1997;573-580
33. White HR, Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M, Farrington DP. Developmental associations between substance use and violence. Develop Psychopathol. 11:1999;785-803
34. Ellickson P, Bui K, Bell R, McGuigan KA. Does early drug use increase the risk of dropping out of high school? J Drug Issues. 28:1998;357-380
35. Ellickson PL, McGuigan KA. Early predictors of adolescent violence. Am J Pub Health. 90:2000;566-572
36. Bray JW, Zarkin GA, Ringwalt C, Qi J. The relationship between marijuana initiation and dropping out of high school. Health Econ. 9:2000;9-18
37. Stenbacka M, Allebeck P, Brandt L, Romelsjo A. Intravenous drug abuse in young men: risk factors assessed in a longitudinal perspective. Scand J Soc Med. 20:1992;94-101
38. Zammit S, Allebeck P, Andreasson S, Lundberg I, Lewis G. Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia in Swedish conscripts of 1969: historical cohort study. BMJ. 325:2002;1199-1201
39. Andreasson S, Allebeck P. Cannabis and mortality among young men: a longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Scand J Soc Med. 18:1990;9-15
40. Bates ME, Labouvie EW. Adolescent risk factors and the prediction of persistent alcohol and drug use into adulthood. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 21:1997;944-950
41. Juon HS, Ensminger ME. Childhood, adolescent, and young adult predictors of suicidal behaviors: a prospective study of African Americans. J Child Psychol Psychiat Allied Disciplines. 38:1997;553-563
42. Sadava SW. Patterns of college student drug use: a longitudinal social learning study. Psychol Rep. 33:1973;75-86
43. Annis HM, Watson C. Drug use and school dropout: a longitudinal study. Canadian Counsellor. 9:1975;155-162
44. Benson G. Drug-related medical and social conditions in military conscripts. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 70:1984;550-558
45. Benson G. Course and outcome of drug abuse in military conscripts. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 71:1985;38-47
46. Friedman AS, Utada AT, Glickman NW, Morrissey MR. Psychopathology as an antecedent to, and as a "consequence" of, substance use, in adolescence. J Drug Educ. 17:1987;233-244
47. Choquet M, Ledoux S, Menke H. Drug intake, health and demands for help in adolescents: a longitudinal approach. Psychiatrie et Psychobiologie. 3:1988;227-244
48. Farrell AD, Danish SJ. Peer drug associations and emotional restraint-causes or consequences of adolescents drug-use. J Consult Clin Psychol. 61:1993;327-334
49. Huizinga D, Loeber R, Thornberry TP. Longitudinal study of delinquency, drug use, sexual activity and pregnancy amongst children and youth in three cities. Pub Health Rep. 108:(suppl 1):1993;90-96
50. Sanford M, Offord D, McLeod K, Boyle M, Byrne C, Hall B. Pathways into the work force: antecedents of school and work force status. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 33:1994;1036-1046
51. Schulenberg J, Bachman JG, O'Malley PM, Johnston LD. High school educational success and subsequent substance use: a panel analysis following adolescents into young adulthood. J Health Soc Behav. 35:1994;45-62
52. Anthony JC, Petronis KR. Early-onset drug use and risk of later drug problems. Drug Alcohol Depend. 40:1995;9-15
53. Farrington DP. The 12th Jack-Tizard-Memorial-Lecture - the development of offending and antisocial-behavior from childhood: key findings from the Cambridge study in delinquent development. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 36:1995;929-964
54. Krohn MD, Lizotte AJ, Perez CM. The interrelationship between substance use and precocious transitions to adult statuses. J Health Soc Behav. 38:1997;87-103
55. Luthar SS, Cushing G. Substance use and personal adjustment among disadvantaged teenagers: A six-month prospective study. J Youth Adolesc. 26:1997;353-372
56. Stanton B, Fang X, Li X, Feigelman S, Galbraith J, Ricardo I. Evolution of risk behaviors over 2 years among a cohort of urban African American adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 151:1997;398-406
57. Rao U, Daley SE, Hammen C. Relationship between depression and substance use disorders in adolescent women during the transition to adulthood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 39:2000;215-222
58. Weiser M, Knobler HY, Noy S, Kaplan Z. Clinical characteristics of adolescents later hospitalized for schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet. 114:2002;949-955
59. Epstein L, Tamir A. Health-related behavior of adolescents: change over time. J Adolesc Health Care. 5:1984;91-95
60. Kaplan HB, Martin SS, Johnson RJ, Robbins CA. Escalation of marijuana use: application of a general theory of deviant behavior. J Health Soc Behav. 27:1986;44-61
61. Tubman JG, Vicary JR, von Eye A, Lerner JV. Longitudinal substance use and adult adjustment. J Subst Abuse. 2:1990;317-334
62. Scheier LM, Newcomb MD. Differentiation of early adolescent predictors of drug use versus abuse: a developmental risk-factor model. J Subst Abuse. 3:1991;277-299
63. Hammer T, Vaglum P. Further course of mental health and use of alcohol and tranquilizers after cessation or persistence of cannabis use in young adulthood: a longitudinal study. Scand J Soc Med. 20:1992;143-150
64. Degonda M, Angst J. The Zurich study. XX. Social phobia and agoraphobia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 243:1993;95-102
65. Romero E, Luengo MA, Otero-Lopez JM. The relationship between self-esteem and drug use in adolescents: a longitudinal analysis. Revista de Psicologia Social. 10:1995;149-159
66. Andrews JA, Duncan SC. Examining the reciprocal relation between academic motivation and substance use: effects of family relationships, self-esteem, and general deviance. J Behavior Med. 20:1997;523-549
67. Patton GC, Harris R, Carlin JB, et al. Adolescent suicidal behaviours: a population-based study of risk. Psychol Med. 27:1997;715-724
68. Hansell S, White HR. Adolescent drug use, psychological distress, and physical symptoms. J Health Soc Behav. 32:1991;288-301
69. White HR, Hansell S. Acute and long-term effects of drug use on aggression from adolescence into adulthood. J Drug Issues. 28:1998;837-858
70. Costello EJ, Erkanli A, Federman E, Angold A. Development of psychiatric comorbidity with substance abuse in adolescents: effects of timing and sex. J Clin Child Psychol. 28:1999;298-311
71. Duncan SC, Strycker LA, Duncan TE. Exploring associations in developmental trends of adolescent substance use and risky sexual behavior in a high-risk population. J Behavior Med. 22:1999;21-34
72. Perkonigg A, Lieb R, Hofler M, Schuster P, Sonntag H, Wittchen H-U. Patterns of cannabis use, abuse and dependence over time: incidence, progression and stability in a sample of 1228 adolescents. Addiction. 94:1999;1663-1678
73. Huertas Zarco I, Pereiro Berenguer I, Chover Larea J, et al. School failure in a cohort of adolescents. Atencion Primaria. 23:1999;289-295
74. Braun BL, Murray DM, Sidney S. Lifetime cocaine use and cardiovascular characteristics among young adults: the CARDIA study. Am J Public Health. 87:1997;629-634
75. Brook DW, Brook JS, Pahl T, Montoya I. The longitudinal relationship between drug use and risky sexual behaviors among Colombian adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 156:2002;1101-1107
76. Egger M, Schneider M, Davey Smith G. Spurious precision? meta-analysis of observational studies. BMJ. 316:1998;140-144
77. Lynskey MT, Coffey C, Degenhardt L, Carlin JB, Patton G. A longitudinal study of the effects of adolescent cannabis use on high school completion. Addiction. 98:2003;685-692
78. Patton GC, Coffey C, Carlin JB, Degenhardt L, Lynskey M, Hall W. Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study. BMJ. 325:2002;1195-1198
79. Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation. Proc R Soc Med. 58:1965;295-300
80. Davey Smith G, Phillips AN, Neaton JD. Smoking as "independent" risk factor for suicide: illustration of an artifact from observational epidemiology? Lancet. 340:1992;709-712
81. Macleod J, Davey Smith G, Heslop P, Metcalfe C, Carroll D, Hart C. Psychological stress and cardiovascular disease: empirical demonstration of bias in a prospective observational study of Scottish men. BMJ. 324:2002;1247-1251
82. Lipkus IM, Barefoot JC, Williams RB, Siegler IC. Personality measures as predictors of smoking initiation and cessation in the UNC Alumni Heart Study. Health Psychol. 13:1994;149-155
83. Colon HM, Robles RR, Sahai H. The validity of drug use responses in a household survey in Puerto Rico: comparison of survey responses of cocaine and heroin use with hair tests. Int J Epidemiol. 30:2001;1042-1049
84. Anthony JC, Neumark YD, Van Etten ML. Do I do what I say? a perspective on self-report methods in drug dependence epidemiology. Stone AA, Turkkan JS, Bachrach CA, Jobe JB, Kurtzman HS, Cain VS. The Science of Self-report: implications for Research and Practice. 2000;175-198 Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah
85. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Data dredging, bias or confounding. BMJ. 325:2002;1437-1438
86. Robins LN. Sturdy childhood predictors of adult antisocial behaviour: replications from longitudinal studies. Psycho Med. 8:1978;611-622
87. Maughan B, McCarthy G. Childhood adversities and psychosocial disorders. Br Med Bull. 53:1997;156-169
88. Phillips AN, Davey Smith G. How independent are independent effects? relative risk estimation when correlated exposures are measured imprecisely. J Clin Epidemiol. 44:1991;1223-1231
89. Berkane M. Latent variable modelling and applications to causality. 1997;Springer Verlag, New York
90. Morral AR, McCaffrey DF, Paddock SM. Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect. Addiction. 97:2002;1493-1503
91. van den Bree MB, Johnson EO, Neale MC, Pickens RW. Genetic and environmental influences on drug use and abuse/dependence in male and female twins. Drug Alcohol Depend. 52:1998;231-241
92. Jablensky A. Epidemiology of schizophrenia: the global burden of disease and disability. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 250:2000;274-285
93. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend. 71:2003;37-48
94. Susser E, Terry MB, Matte T. The birth cohorts grow up: new opportunities for epidemiology. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 14:2000;98-100
95. Golding J, Pembrey M, Jones R, for the ALSPAC Study Team. The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, I study methodology. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2001; 15: 74-87.
96. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Mendelian randomisation": can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Int J Epidemiol. 32:2003;1-22
97. Gadzicki D, Muller-Vahl K, Stuhrmann M. A frequent polymorphism in the coding exon of the human cannabinoid receptor (CNR1) gene. Mol Cell Probes. 13:1999;321-323
98. Davey Smith G, Harbord R, Ebrahim S. Fibrinogen, C-reactive protein and coronary heart disease: does Mendelian randomization suggest the associations are non-causal? Q J Med. 97:2004;163-166
99. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Mendelian randomisation: prospects, potentials and limitations. Int J Epidemiol. 33:2004;30-42
100. White D, Pitts M. Educating young people about drugs: a systematic review. Addiction. 93:1998;1475-1487
101. Ricaurte GA, McCann UD. Assessing long-term effects of MDMA (ecstasy). Lancet. 358:2001;1831-1832
102. Copeland L, Budd J, Robertson JR, Elton R. Changing patterns in causes of death in a cohort of injecting drug users 1980-2001. Arch Intern Med (in press).
103. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S, Frankel S. How policy informs the evidence. BMJ. 322:2001;184-185
104. Kendell RE. Cannabis condemned: the proscription of Indian hemp. Addiction. 98:2003;143-151