The cartography of national and the emergence of China's geobody

Public Culture

Volumn 21, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 141-173

  Callahan, William A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 70349184080     PISSN: 08992363     EISSN: 15278018     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/08992363-2008-024     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. "Chinese Cartography: China Beat Columbus to It, Perhaps," Economist, January 12, 2006, www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5381851
2. Gavin Menzies has adopted this map, which he calls the "1418 Map," and posted it on his "1421: The Year When China Discovered the World" Web site, www.1421.tv/assets/images/maps/1418_map_download.jpg (accessed January 15, 2008).
3. Walter D. Mignolo, The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality, and Colonization (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), 219-313.
4. Wang Xiaodong, Fang Ning, and Song Qiang, Quanqiuhua yinxiang xiade Zhongguo zhi lü (China's Road under the Shadow of Globalization) (Beijing: Shehui Kexue Chubanshe, 1999)
5. See, e.g., Joseph Kahn, "Storm over 1418 Map: History or Scam?" International Herald Tribune, January 17, 2006, www.iht.com/articles/2006/01/16/news/map.php. Menzies's argument that China discovered America in 1421 is also seen as a hoax by most historians.
6. Gavin Menzies, 1421: The Year When China Discovered the World (New York: Perennial, 2003)
7. See Roger Des Forges and Luo Xu, "China as a Non-hegemonic Superpower? The Uses of History among the China Can Say No Writers and Their Critics," Critical Asian Studies 33 (2001): 498, 507
8. See, e.g., Chen Gaoji, preface to Zhongguo xin yutu (New Atlas of China) (Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1925).
9. Zhao Dachuan, "Shiji qipan zuguo tongyi" ("A Century of Anticipating the Unification of the Motherland"), Ditu (Cartography), no. 2 (2000): 39-44.
10. Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994), 17
11. See also Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (New York: Verso, 2006), 170-78.
12. See Michael J. Shapiro, Methods and Nations: Cultural Governance and the Indigenous Subject (New York: Routledge, 2004), 49
13. William A. Callahan, Cultural Governance and Resistance in Pacific Asia (London: Routledge, 2006), 1-20.
14. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality: An Introduction (New York: Vintage, 1990), 133
15. Foucault, "Society Must Be Defended": Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976 (New York: Picador, 2003)
16. Lü Yiran, ed., Zhongguo jindai bianjie shi (History of China's Modern Borders), 2 vols. (Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe, 2007), 1:1-2; for a more critical view
17. see Huang Donglan, "Lingtu, jiangyu, guochi: Qingmo Minguo dili jiaokeshu de kongjian biaoxiang" ("Territory, Domain, and National Humiliation: Concepts of Space in Geography Textbooks from the Late Qing and Republican Periods"), in Shenti, xinxing, quanli (Body, Mind, and Power), ed. Huang Donglan (Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Press, 2005), 77-79.
18. For a critical analysis of how "the century of national humiliation" informs modern identity practices in China, see William A. Callahan, "National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation, and Chinese Nationalism," Alternatives 29 (2004): 199-218.
19. This argument is summarized from Thongchai, Siam Mapped, 147-48
20. Johannes Putsch, La vergine Europa (Europe as a Virgin) (1592)
21. Mignolo, Darker Side, 218. See also J. B. Harley, "Deconstructing the Map," Cartographica 26 (1989): 1-20
22. Gearóid Ó Tuathail, Critical Geopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 1-20
23. "Untitled Map" (1743), British Library. The most famous "Huayi tu" (1136) is inscribed on a stone stele now housed in Xi'an, China. A rubbing of this map is available at the Library of Congress.
24. For a critical discussion of the conventions of premodern Chinese maps, see the chapters by Cordell Yee in Cartography in the Traditional East and Southeast Asian Societies, vol. 2, bk. 2, of The History of Cartography, ed. J. B. Harley and David Woodward (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 35-230
25. Richard J. Smith, Chinese Maps: Images of "All under Heaven" (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Smith, "Mapping China's World: Cultural Cartography in Late Imperial Times," in Landscape, Culture, and Power in Chinese Society, ed. Wen-hin Yeh (Berkeley: University of California, Institute of East Asian Studies, 1998), 52-105
26. Peter C. Perdue, "Boundaries, Maps, and Movement: Chinese, Russian, and Mongolian Empires in Early Modern Central Eurasia," International History Review 20 (1998): 263-86.
27. Iwo Amelung, "New Maps for the Modernizing State: Western Cartographic Knowledge and Its Application in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century China," in Graphic and Text in the Production of Technical Knowledge in China: The Warp and the Weft, ed. Francesca Bray, Vera Dorofeeva-Lichtmann, and Georges Métailié (Leiden: Brill, 2007), 34
28. Ding Wenjiang, Weng Wenjing, and Zeng Shiying, Zhonghua minguo xin ditu (New Map of the Republic of China) (Shanghai: Shenbao Guan, 1934)
29. Mignolo, Darker Side, 253-54; Huang, "Lingtu, jiangyu, guochi."
30. John Hay, "The Body Invisible in Chinese Art?" in Body, Subject, and Power in China, ed. Angela Zito and Tani E. Barlow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 52.
31. Anonymous historical geographer, interview by author, Beijing, July 16, 2007
32. Zhonghua mingguo yuannian lishu (Almanac of the First Year of the Republic of China) (Hunan Yanshuo Zongke Yin, 1912)
33. The Constitutional Compact of the Chung Hua Min Kuo, bilingual ed., Peking Daily News, May 1, 1914, chap. 1, article 3. The ROC's 1923 Constitution obscures this transition by axiomatically declaring that "the territory which originally belonged to the Republic shall be the territory of the Republic of China" (Constitution of the Republic of China [Peking: Commission on Extraterritoriality, 1924], chap. 3, article 3).
34. In addition to the "Untitled Map" (1743), see "Da Qing wannian yitong dili quantu" ("Complete Universal Map of the Unified Great Qing Empire") (1816). An image of this map is posted on the Library of Congress Web page hdl.loc.gov/loc.gmd/g7820.ct002256 (accessed November 10, 2008).
35. "Zhonghua guochi ditu" ("Map of Chinese National Humiliation") (Shanghai: Central Cartographic Society, 1916); "Zhongguo guochi ditu" ("Map of China's National Humiliation"), in Zuixin Zhonghua minguo gaizao quantu (The Atlas of the Republic of China, with the Latest Corrections), comp. Bai Meichu (Beiping: Jianshe Tushuguan, 1930), map 2.
36. For other examples of a white and blank China surrounded by "lost territories" marked with red slashes, see "Zhonghua guochi ditu" ("Map of Chinese National Humiliation") (Henan Provincial Government, 1922); "Zhonghua guochi ditu" ("Map of Chinese National Humiliation") (Industry and Commerce Association of Hebei Province, 1929); and "Aiguo ditu: Guochi yu guochan yilan" ("Patriotic Map: National Humiliation and National Assets in One View") (Meeting of the Central Government, Wuhan Branch meeting, 1929)
37. Huang uses geography textbooks to make the same argument about an expanding popular view of "lost territories" in early-twentieth-century China ("Lingtu, jiangyu, guochi," 90)
38. Bai, preface to Zuixin Zhonghua minguo gaizao quantu, 1
39. "Zhonghua guochi ditu, zaiban" ("Map of China's National Humiliation, Reprint") (Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju, 1927)
40. For similar maps of concentric circles and "lost territories," see "Zhongguo jianming guochi yutu" ("Simple Map of China's National Humiliation") (Jiangsu Army Surveying Department, 1928); "Zhongguo guochi ditu" ("Map of China's National Humiliation"), in Gu Yijun, Zhongguo guochi dilixue (Geography of China's National Humiliation) (Beiping: Wenhua Xueshe Yinxing, 1930); and "Zhongguo sangshi lingtu linghai tu" ("Map of China's Lost Land and Maritime Territories"), in Xie Bin, Zhongguo sangdi shi (The History of China's Lost Territories) (Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju, 1925)
41. Gu, Zhongguo guochi dilixue, 1
42. Historical atlases published in Taiwan after 1949 also often take for granted the logic of "imperial domain" and "lost territories." See the middle school geography textbook Zhongguo lidai jiangyu xingshi shitu (Historical Atlas of China's Historical Domain) (Taibei: Zhongguo Shengming Xian Zazhi She Yinxing, 1964), 50-55, 60-67. Many thanks to Richard Curt Kraus for sharing this book with me.
43. See William A. Callahan, "History, Identity, and Security: Producing and Consuming Nationalism in China," Critical Asian Studies 38 (2006): 185-87.
44. Jindai Zhongguo bainian guochi ditu (Maps of the Century of National Humiliation of Modern China) (Beijing: People's Press, 1997)
45. Jindai Zhongguo bainian guochi ditu, 25-26
46. Jindai Zhongguo bainian guochi ditu, 47-48
47. Jindai Zhongguo bainian guochi ditu, 49
48. See Peter C. Perdue, China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004).
49. Joanna Waley-Cohen, "Changing Spaces of Empire in Eighteenth-Century Qing China," in Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries, and Human Geographies in Chinese History, ed. Nicola Di Cosmo and Don J. Wyatt (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 333. See also "Da Qing wannian yitong dili quantu."
50. "Zuixin xiangxi Zhonghua minguo diyu quantu" ("The Latest Detailed Complete Map of the Republic of China") (n.p., 1923).
51. I have studied the "Patriotic Map" at Beijing's National Library. Unfortunately, my request for a copy was denied because the map is very fragile.
52. Jindai Zhongguo bainian guochi ditu, 86; see also Zhang Haipeng, Zhongguo jindaishi gao dituji (Atlas of Modern Chinese History) (Shanghai: Cartographic Press, 1984)
53. Lü, Zhongguo jindai bianjie shi, 1:1-8, 264, 276, 324, 342, 352. This edited volume is the result of a major research project by the Center for the Study of Borderland History and Geography at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. According to a scholar at this center, the book was written to set the standard for border studies over the next few decades (anonymous historical geographer, interview by author, Beijing, July 17, 2007).
54. Zhao Ming, ed., Baige aiguo zhuyi jiaoyu shifan jidi dituji (Atlas of One Hundred Patriotic Education Sites) (Beijing: China Cartographic Press, 1999).
55. M. Taylor Fravel, "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes," International Security 30 (2005): 46
56. see also Maria Chang, "Chinese Irredentist Nationalism," in Return of the Dragon (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2001), 205-26.
57. Old Secretariat, Chinese Aggression in Maps: Nine Maps, with an Introduction and Explanatory Notes (Delhi: Publications Division, 1962); the Southeast Asian concern is cited in Greg Austin, China's Ocean Frontier: International Law, Military Force, and National Development (Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1998), 331
58. See Allen Carlson, Unifying China, Integrating with the World: Securing Chinese Sovereignty in the Reform Era (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2005), 49-91, 231; and Fravel, "Regime Insecurity."
59. Carlson, Unifying China, 50
60. Carlson, Unifying China, 65
61. See Mark C. Elliott, "The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies," Journal of Asian Studies 59 (2000): 603-46.
62. "BaoRi qiangzhan woguo dongbei guochi tu" ("The Map of National Humiliation: Japan's Violent Occupation of Our Country's Northeast") (Shanghai: n.p., ca. 1932).
63. Zhang Qingmin, "Global Challenges, Domestic Pressures, and the Making of China's Foreign Policy" (paper presented at the British Inter-university China Center launch conference, Oxford, June 2007), 12; e-mail correspondence with Zhang, July 29, 2007
64. In Chinese the area is usually called Outer Northeast (wai dongbei) and in English, Outer Manchuria. But the Web site makes clear that both refer to the same lost territory (baike.baidu.com/ view/173829.htm [accessed March 10, 2008]). See also the Chinese Wikipedia site, which is even more detailed and has a colored map that marks "lost territories" in red (zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/ %E5%A4%96%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%97 [accessed March 10, 2008]).
65. See Zhonghua Bantu Wang (China Map Net), www.uc321.net/bbs/viewthread.php ?tid=3303&extra=page%3D1 (accessed March 10, 2008); and Taizhou Qingnian Luntan (Taizhou Youth Discussion Forum), www.tz94.com/bbs/read.php?tid=46943 (accessed March 10, 2008).
66. See John Garnaut, "Russia on Edge as China Grows," Sydney Morning Herald, June 9, 2008, business.smh.com.au/business/russia-on-edge-as-china-grows; Mikhail Alexseev, "The 'Yellow Peril' Revisited: The Impact of Chinese Migration in Primorskii Krai," Program on New Approaches to Russian Security (PONARS), Policy Memo series, no. 94 (October 1999): 2-3
67. Alexander Lukin, The Bear Watches the Dragon: Russia's Perceptions of China and the Evolution of Russian-Chinese Relations since the Eighteenth Century (London: Sharpe, 2002)
68. Peter Hays Gries, "The Koguryo Controversy, National Identity, and Sino-Korean Relations Today," East Asia 22 (2005): 3
69. Austin Ramzy, "Rewriting History," Time, August 16, 2004, www .time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501040823-682338,00.html. 58. See "China's Claims for Korean History Revealed," Chosun Ilbo, June 4, 2007, english .chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200706/200706040026.html.
70. Gries, "Koguryo Controversy," 3-4; Ramzy, "Rewriting History." There are numerous Chinese publications on Koguryo from the Northeast Asia Project. For discussions on claims to the Koguryo Kingdom as a former vassal, see Ma Dazheng and Jin Xizheng, eds., Gaoguli Bohai lishi wenti yanjiu lunwenji (Essays on the History of Koguryo and Parhae) (Yanji, Jilin: Yanbian Daxue Chubanshe, 2004).
71. Park Woo-Jung, " 'Goguryeo, China,' and 'Dokdo, Japan'?" Hankyoreh, January 12, 2004, translated in Korea Focus, January-February 2004
72. Park Young-sun, "China's 'Northeast Asia Project': Launch of a 'History War'?" Korean Historical Review, translated in Korea Focus, September-October 2004
73. "Map Hints Chinese Territory as Ancient Korean," Korea Times, November 21, 2007; "Goguryeo Kingdom (BC 37-AD 668)," kokuryo.com (accessed March 10, 2008).
74. Anonymous international relations specialist, interview by author, Beijing, July 13, 2007; Gries, "Koguryo Controversy," 5-6; Park, "China's 'Northeast Asia Project.'"
75. See, e.g., How Thailand Lost Her Territories to France (Bangkok: Department of Publicity, 1940). The maps in this official book come from World War II, when imperial France could not protect its Indochinese colonies, which were occupied by Japan and Thailand. Bangkok was forced to return its newly recovered territories after the war. But such views of expansive Thai space continue to inspire unofficial pan-Thai movements in the twenty-first century.
76. The photograph of the carpet was taken by Ablimit Baki at a weaving collective in Hotan, 2005
77. Dung Kai Cheung (Dong Qizhang), Dituji: Yige xiangxiangde chengshide kaoguxue (The Atlas: The Archaeology of an Imaginary City) (Taibei: Lianhe Wenxue, 1997)
78. For an analysis of cartography's ethical hierarchy that values the upper left over the lower right, see Mignolo, Darker Side, 259
79. "Huan ge jiaodu kan Taiwan" ("Change the Perspective to View Taiwan"), comp. Geography Department, National Taiwan University (Taibei: Council for Cultural Affairs, 2004).
80. R. B. J. Walker, "The Subject of Security," in Critical Security Studies, ed. Keith Krause and Michael C. Williams (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 71-72.