Acute Kidney Injury in the Elderly

Clinics in Geriatric Medicine

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 331-358

  Abdel Kader, Khaled ^a   Palevsky, Paul M ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute kidney injury; Acute renal failure; Elderly; Geriatric

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; AMINOGLYCOSIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AMPHOTERICIN B; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; BICARBONATE; CALCINEURIN INHIBITOR; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CISPLATIN; CORTICOSTEROID; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; FUROSEMIDE; GLUCOCORTICOID; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; SULFONAMIDE;

ACUTE GLOMERULONEPHRITIS; ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ACUTE KIDNEY TUBULE NECROSIS; AGED; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; CONTRAST INDUCED NEPHROPATHY; CREATININE CLEARANCE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH ROUTE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ENDOTOXEMIA; GERIATRIC PATIENT; GLOMERULOSCLEROSIS; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS; KIDNEY BLOOD FLOW; KIDNEY ISCHEMIA; NEPHROTOXICITY; PROGNOSIS; PROSTATE HYPERTROPHY; PROTEINURIA; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RENOVASCULAR DISEASE; REVIEW; THROMBOEMBOLISM; UREA NITROGEN BLOOD LEVEL; UREMIA; URINARY TRACT OBSTRUCTION; URINE OSMOLALITY; URINE RETENTION; URINE VOLUME;

AGE FACTORS; AGED; AGING; BIOPSY; GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY FAILURE, ACUTE; PROGNOSIS; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 70149111154     PISSN: 07490690     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cger.2009.04.001     Document Type: Review

References (189)

1. Hou S.H., Bushinsky D.A., Wish J.B., et al. Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency: a prospective study. Am J Med 74 2 (1983) 243-248
2. Shusterman N., Strom B.L., Murray T.G., et al. Risk factors and outcome of hospital-acquired acute renal failure. Clinical epidemiologic study. Am J Med 83 1 (1987) 65-71
3. Liangos O., Wald R., O'Bell J.W., et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of acute renal failure in hospitalized patients: a national survey. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 1 1 (2006) 43-51
4. Pascual J., Orofino L., Liano F., et al. Incidence and prognosis of acute renal failure in older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 38 1 (1990) 25-30
5. Rosenfeld J.B., Shohat J., Grosskopf I., et al. Acute renal failure: a disease of the elderly?. Adv Nephrol Necker Hosp 16 (1987) 159-167
6. Pascual J., Liano F., and Ortuno J. The elderly patient with acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 6 2 (Aug 1995) 144-153
7. Nash K., Hafeez A., and Hou S. Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency. Am J Kidney Dis 39 5 (2002) 930-936
8. Barretti P., and Soares V.A. Acute renal failure: clinical outcome and causes of death. Ren Fail 19 2 (1997) 253-257
9. Brivet F.G., Kleinknecht D.J., Loirat P., et al. Acute renal failure in intensive care units - causes, outcome, and prognostic factors of hospital mortality; a prospective, multicenter study. French Study Group on Acute Renal Failure. Crit Care Med 24 2 (1996) 192-198
10. Groeneveld A.B., Tran D.D., van der Meulen J., et al. Acute renal failure in the medical intensive care unit: predisposing, complicating factors and outcome. Nephron 59 4 (1991) 602-610
11. Levy E.M., Viscoli C.M., and Horwitz R.I. The effect of acute renal failure on mortality. A cohort analysis. JAMA 275 19 (1996) 1489-1494
12. Liano F., and Pascual J. Epidemiology of acute renal failure: a prospective, multicenter, community-based study. Madrid Acute Renal Failure Study Group. Kidney Int 50 3 (1996) 811-818
13. Lombardi R., Zampedri L., Rodriguez I., et al. Prognosis in acute renal failure of septic origin: a multivariate analysis. Ren Fail 20 5 (1998) 725-732
14. Mangano C.M., Diamondstone L.S., Ramsay J.G., et al. Renal dysfunction after myocardial revascularization: risk factors, adverse outcomes, and hospital resource utilization. The Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group. Ann Intern Med 128 3 (1998) 194-203
15. Neveu H., Kleinknecht D., Brivet F., et al. Prognostic factors in acute renal failure due to sepsis. Results of a prospective multicentre study. The French Study Group on Acute Renal Failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant 11 2 (1996) 293-299
16. Vivino G., Antonelli M., Moro M.L., et al. Risk factors for acute renal failure in trauma patients. Intensive Care Med 24 8 (1998) 808-814
17. Schmitt R., Coca S., Kanbay M., et al. Recovery of kidney function after acute kidney injury in the elderly: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 52 2 (2008) 262-271
18. Ishani A., Xue J.L., Himmelfarb J., et al. Acute kidney injury increases risk of ESRD among elderly. J Am Soc Nephrol 20 1 (2009) 223-228
19. Guly U.M., and Turney J.H. Post-traumatic acute renal failure, 1956-1988. Clin Nephrol 34 2 (1990) 79-83
20. Turney J.H., Marshall D.H., Brownjohn A.M., et al. The evolution of acute renal failure, 1956-1988. Q J Med 74 273 (1990) 83-104
21. Gornick Jr. C.C., and Kjellstrand C.M. Acute renal failure complicating aortic aneurysm surgery. Nephron 35 3 (1983) 145-157
22. Berisa F., Beaman M., Adu D., et al. Prognostic factors in acute renal failure following aortic aneurysm surgery. Q J Med 76 279 (1990) 689-698
23. Bullock M.L., Umen A.J., Finkelstein M., et al. The assessment of risk factors in 462 patients with acute renal failure. Am J Kidney Dis 5 2 (1985) 97-103
24. Chertow G.M., Burdick E., Honour M., et al. Acute kidney injury, mortality, length of stay, and costs in hospitalized patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 16 11 (2005) 3365-3370
25. Lassnigg A., Schmidlin D., Mouhieddine M., et al. Minimal changes of serum creatinine predict prognosis in patients after cardiothoracic surgery: a prospective cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol 15 6 (2004) 1597-1605
26. Praught M.L., and Shlipak M.G. Are small changes in serum creatinine an important risk factor?. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 14 3 (2005) 265-270
27. Mehta R.L., and Chertow G.M. Acute renal failure definitions and classification: time for change?. J Am Soc Nephrol 14 8 (2003) 2178-2187
28. Mehta R.L., Kellum J.A., Shah S.V., et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 11 2 (2007) R31
29. Himmelfarb J., and Ikizler T.A. Acute kidney injury: changing lexicography, definitions, and epidemiology. Kidney Int 71 10 (2007) 971-976
30. Bellomo R., Ronco C., Kellum J.A., et al. Acute renal failure - definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care 8 4 (2004) R204-R212
31. Uchino S., Bellomo R., Goldsmith D., et al. An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med 34 7 (2006) 1913-1917
32. Hoste E.A., Clermont G., Kersten A., et al. RIFLE criteria for acute kidney injury are associated with hospital mortality in critically ill patients: a cohort analysis. Crit Care 10 3 (2006) R73
33. Bell M., Liljestam E., Granath F., et al. Optimal follow-up time after continuous renal replacement therapy in actual renal failure patients stratified with the RIFLE criteria. Nephrol Dial Transplant 20 2 (2005) 354-360
34. Abosaif N.Y., Tolba Y.A., Heap M., et al. The outcome of acute renal failure in the intensive care unit according to RIFLE: model application, sensitivity, and predictability. Am J Kidney Dis 46 6 (2005) 1038-1048
35. Kuitunen A., Vento A., Suojaranta-Ylinen R., et al. Acute renal failure after cardiac surgery: evaluation of the RIFLE classification. Ann Thorac Surg 81 2 (2006) 542-546
36. Lopes J.A., Jorge S., Silva S., et al. An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure following myeloablative autologous and allogeneic haematopoietic cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 38 5 (2006) 395 [letter]
37. Lopes J.A., Jorge S., Neves F.C., et al. An assessment of the RIFLE criteria for acute renal failure in severely burned patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 22 1 (2007) 285 [letter]
38. Cruz D.N., Bolgan I., Perazella M.A., et al. North East Italian Prospective Hospital Renal Outcome Survey on Acute Kidney Injury (NEiPHROS-AKI): targeting the problem with the RIFLE Criteria. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2 3 (2007) 418-425
39. Ali T., Khan I., Simpson W., et al. Incidence and outcomes in acute kidney injury: a comprehensive population-based study. J Am Soc Nephrol 18 4 (2007) 1292-1298
40. Khalil P., Murty P., and Palevsky P.M. The patient with acute kidney injury. Prim Care 35 2 (2008) 239-264 vi
41. Moran S.M., and Myers B.D. Course of acute renal failure studied by a model of creatinine kinetics. Kidney Int 27 6 (1985) 928-937
42. Perrone R.D., Madias N.E., and Levey A.S. Serum creatinine as an index of renal function: new insights into old concepts. Clin Chem 38 10 (1992) 1933-1953
43. Cheung C.M., Ponnusamy A., and Anderton J.G. Management of acute renal failure in the elderly patient: a clinician's guide. Drugs Aging 25 6 (2008) 455-476
44. Coca S.G., Yalavarthy R., Concato J., et al. Biomarkers for the diagnosis and risk stratification of acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Kidney Int 73 9 (2008) 1008-1016
45. Waikar S.S., and Bonventre J.V. Biomarkers for the diagnosis of acute kidney injury. Nephron Clin Pract 109 4 (2008) c192-c197
46. Xue J.L., Daniels F., Star R.A., et al. Incidence and mortality of acute renal failure in Medicare beneficiaries, 1992 to 2001. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 4 (2006) 1135-1142
47. Waikar S.S., Curhan G.C., Wald R., et al. Declining mortality in patients with acute renal failure, 1988 to 2002. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 4 (2006) 1143-1150
48. Waikar S.S., Wald R., Chertow G.M., et al. Validity of International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification Codes for Acute Renal Failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 6 (2006) 1688-1694
49. Hsu C.Y., McCulloch C.E., Fan D., et al. Community-based incidence of acute renal failure. Kidney Int 72 2 (2007) 208-212
50. Baraldi A., Ballestri M., Rapana R., et al. Acute renal failure of medical type in an elderly population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 13 Suppl 7 (1998) 25-29
51. Van Den Noortgate N., Mouton V., Lamot C., et al. Outcome in a post-cardiac surgery population with acute renal failure requiring dialysis: does age make a difference?. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18 4 (2003) 732-736
52. Pascual J., and Liano F. Causes and prognosis of acute renal failure in the very old. Madrid Acute Renal Failure Study Group. J Am Geriatr Soc 46 6 (1998) 721-725
53. de Mendonca A., Vincent J.L., Suter P.M., et al. Acute renal failure in the ICU: risk factors and outcome evaluated by the SOFA score. Intensive Care Med 26 7 (2000) 915-921
54. Feest T.G., Round A., and Hamad S. Incidence of severe acute renal failure in adults: results of a community based study. BMJ 306 6876 (1993) 481-483
55. Jerkic M., Vojvodic S., and Lopez-Novoa J.M. The mechanism of increased renal susceptibility to toxic substances in the elderly. Part I. The role of increased vasoconstriction. Int Urol Nephrol 32 4 (2001) 539-547
56. Lindeman R.D. Overview: renal physiology and pathophysiology of aging. Am J Kidney Dis 16 4 (1990) 275-282
57. Lindeman R.D., and Goldman R. Anatomic and physiologic age changes in the kidney. Exp Gerontol 21 4-5 (1986) 379-406
58. Tauchi H., Tsuboi K., and Okutomi J. Age changes in the human kidney of the different races. Gerontologia 17 2 (1971) 87-97
59. Frocht A., and Fillit H. Renal disease in the geriatric patient. J Am Geriatr Soc 32 1 (1984) 28-43
60. Goyal V.K. Changes with age in the human kidney. Exp Gerontol 17 5 (1982) 321-331
61. Kaplan C., Pasternack B., Shah H., et al. Age-related incidence of sclerotic glomeruli in human kidneys. Am J Pathol 80 2 (1975) 227-234
62. McLachlan M.S., Guthrie J.C., Anderson C.K., et al. Vascular and glomerular changes in the ageing kidney. J Pathol 121 2 (1977) 65-78
63. Fliser D. Ren sanus in corpore sano: the myth of the inexorable decline of renal function with senescence. Nephrol Dial Transplant 20 3 (2005) 482-485
64. Brenner B.M., and Rector F.C. Brenner & Rector's the kidney. 8th edition (2008), Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia
65. Esposito C., Plati A., Mazzullo T., et al. Renal function and functional reserve in healthy elderly individuals. J Nephrol 20 5 (2007) 617-625
66. Abrass C.K., Adcox M.J., and Raugi G.J. Aging-associated changes in renal extracellular matrix. Am J Pathol 146 3 (1995) 742-752
67. Hoy W.E., Douglas-Denton R.N., Hughson M.D., et al. A stereological study of glomerular number and volume: preliminary findings in a multiracial study of kidneys at autopsy. Kidney Int Suppl 83 (Feb 2003) S31-S37
68. Hollenberg N.K., Adams D.F., Solomon H.S., et al. Senescence and the renal vasculature in normal man. Circ Res 34 3 (1974) 309-316
69. Fliser D., Zeier M., Nowack R., et al. Renal functional reserve in healthy elderly subjects. J Am Soc Nephrol 3 7 (1993) 1371-1377
70. Lindeman R.D., Tobin J., and Shock N.W. Longitudinal studies on the rate of decline in renal function with age. J Am Geriatr Soc 33 4 (1985) 278-285
71. Rowe J.W., Andres R., Tobin J.D., et al. The effect of age on creatinine clearance in men: a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. J Gerontol 31 2 (1976) 155-163
72. Ungar A., Castellani S., Di Serio C., et al. Changes in renal autacoids and hemodynamics associated with aging and isolated systolic hypertension. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat 62 2 (2000) 117-133
73. Fliser D., Franek E., Joest M., et al. Renal function in the elderly: impact of hypertension and cardiac function. Kidney Int 51 4 (1997) 1196-1204
74. Crane M.G., and Harris J.J. Effect of aging on renin activity and aldosterone excretion. J Lab Clin Med 87 6 (1976) 947-959
75. Epstein M., and Hollenberg N.K. Age as a determinant of renal sodium conservation in normal man. J Lab Clin Med 87 3 (1976) 411-417
76. Flood C., Gherondache C., Pincus G., et al. The metabolism and secretion of aldosterone in elderly subjects. J Clin Invest 46 6 (1967) 960-966
77. Macias Nunez J.F., Garcia Iglesias C., Bondia Roman A., et al. Renal handling of sodium in old people: a functional study. Age Ageing 7 3 (1978) 178-181
78. Macias Nunez J.F., Garcia Iglesias C., Tabernero Romo J.M., et al. Renal management of sodium under indomethacin and aldosterone in the elderly. Age Ageing 9 3 (1980) 165-172
79. Rowe J.W., Shock N.W., and DeFronzo R.A. The influence of age on the renal response to water deprivation in man. Nephron 17 4 (1976) 270-278
80. Castellani S., Ungar A., Cantini C., et al. Excessive vasoconstriction after stress by the aging kidney: inadequate prostaglandin modulation of increased endothelin activity. J Lab Clin Med 132 3 (1998) 186-194
81. Davidman M., Olson P., Kohen J., et al. Iatrogenic renal disease. Arch Intern Med 151 9 (1991) 1809-1812
82. Kohli H.S., Bhaskaran M.C., Muthukumar T., et al. Treatment-related acute renal failure in the elderly: a hospital-based prospective study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 15 2 (2000) 212-217
83. Macias-Nunez J.F., Lopez-Novoa J.M., and Martinez-Maldonado M. Acute renal failure in the aged. Semin Nephrol 16 4 (1996) 330-338
84. Lash J.P., and Gardner C. Effects of aging and drugs on normal renal function. Coron Artery Dis 8 8-9 (1997) 489-494
85. van Kraaij D.J., Jansen R.W., Gribnau F.W., et al. Diuretic therapy in elderly heart failure patients with and without left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Drugs Aging 16 4 (2000) 289-300
86. Johnson A.G., Simons L.A., Simons J., et al. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and hypertension in the elderly: a community-based cross-sectional study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 35 5 (1993) 455-459
87. Jones A.C., Berman P., and Doherty M. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug usage and requirement in elderly acute hospital admissions. Br J Rheumatol 31 1 (1992) 45-48
88. Motola D., Vaccheri A., Silvani M.C., et al. Pattern of NSAID use in the Italian general population: a questionnaire-based survey. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 60 10 (2004) 731-738
89. Pilotto A., Franceschi M., Leandro G., et al. NSAID and aspirin use by the elderly in general practice: effect on gastrointestinal symptoms and therapies. Drugs Aging 20 9 (2003) 701-710
90. Huerta C., Castellsague J., Varas-Lorenzo C., et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of ARF in the general population. Am J Kidney Dis 45 3 (2005) 531-539
91. Gurwitz J.H., Avorn J., Ross-Degnan D., et al. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug-associated azotemia in the very old. JAMA 264 4 (1990) 471-475
92. Adhiyaman V., Asghar M., Oke A., et al. Nephrotoxicity in the elderly due to co-prescription of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J R Soc Med 94 10 (2001) 512-514
93. Cuny G., Royer R.J., Mur J.M., et al. Pharmacokinetics of salicylates in elderly. Gerontology 25 1 (1979) 49-55
94. Fraenkel L., Wittink D.R., Concato J., et al. Informed choice and the widespread use of antiinflammatory drugs. Arthritis Rheum 51 2 (2004) 210-214
95. Ahmed A. Use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in patients with heart failure and renal insufficiency: how concerned should we be by the rise in serum creatinine?. J Am Geriatr Soc 50 7 (2002) 1297-1300
96. Bridoux F., Hazzan M., Pallot J.L., et al. Acute renal failure after the use of angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors in patients without renal artery stenosis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 7 2 (1992) 100-104
97. Lameire N., Matthys E., Vanholder R., et al. Causes and prognosis of acute renal failure in elderly patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2 5 (1987) 316-322
98. Liano F., Junco E., Pascual J., et al. The spectrum of acute renal failure in the intensive care unit compared with that seen in other settings. The Madrid Acute Renal Failure Study Group. Kidney Int Suppl 66 (1998) S16-S24
99. Schrier R.W., and Wang W. Acute renal failure and sepsis. N Engl J Med 351 2 (2004) 159-169
100. Gentric A., and Cledes J. Immediate and long-term prognosis in acute renal failure in the elderly. Nephrol Dial Transplant 6 2 (1991) 86-90
101. Klouche K., Cristol J.P., Kaaki M., et al. Prognosis of acute renal failure in the elderly. Nephrol Dial Transplant 10 12 (1995) 2240-2243
102. Santacruz F., Barreto S., Mayor M.M., et al. Mortality in elderly patients with acute renal failure. Ren Fail 18 4 (1996) 601-605
103. Linas S.L., Whittenburg D., Parsons P.E., et al. Mild renal ischemia activates primed neutrophils to cause acute renal failure. Kidney Int 42 3 (1992) 610-616
104. Langenberg C., Bellomo R., May C.N., et al. Renal vascular resistance in sepsis. Nephron Physiol 104 1 (2006) 1-11
105. Langenberg C., Wan L., Egi M., et al. Renal blood flow in experimental septic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 69 11 (2006) 1996-2002
106. Rosner M.H., and Okusa M.D. Acute kidney injury associated with cardiac surgery. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 1 1 (2006) 19-32
107. Molitoris B.A., and Sutton T.A. Endothelial injury and dysfunction: role in the extension phase of acute renal failure. Kidney Int 66 2 (2004) 496-499
108. Rabb H. Immune modulation of acute kidney injury. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 3 (2006) 604-606
109. Friedewald J.J., and Rabb H. Inflammatory cells in ischemic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 66 2 (2004) 486-491
110. Rabb H., O'Meara Y.M., Maderna P., et al. Leukocytes, cell adhesion molecules and ischemic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 51 5 (1997) 1463-1468
111. Sutton T.A., Fisher C.J., and Molitoris B.A. Microvascular endothelial injury and dysfunction during ischemic acute renal failure. Kidney Int 62 5 (2002) 1539-1549
112. Rabb H., Daniels F., O'Donnell M., et al. Pathophysiological role of T lymphocytes in renal ischemia-reperfusion injury in mice. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 279 3 (2000) F525-F531
113. Bonventre J.V., and Zuk A. Ischemic acute renal failure: an inflammatory disease?. Kidney Int 66 2 (2004) 480-485
114. Bonventre J.V., and Weinberg J.M. Recent advances in the pathophysiology of ischemic acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 14 8 (2003) 2199-2210
115. Thadhani R., Pascual M., and Bonventre J.V. Acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 334 22 (1996) 1448-1460
116. Humes H.D., and Liu S. Cellular and molecular basis of renal repair in acute renal failure. J Lab Clin Med 124 6 (1994) 749-754
117. Chawla L.S., Abell L., Mazhari R., et al. Identifying critically ill patients at high risk for developing acute renal failure: a pilot study. Kidney Int 68 5 (2005) 2274-2280
118. Abuelo J.G. Normotensive ischemic acute renal failure. N Engl J Med 357 8 (2007) 797-805
119. Bellomo R., Chapman M., Finfer S., et al. Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo-controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society (ANZICS) Clinical Trials Group. Lancet 356 9248 (2000) 2139-2143
120. Friedrich J.O., Adhikari N., Herridge M.S., et al. Meta-analysis: low-dose dopamine increases urine output but does not prevent renal dysfunction or death. Ann Intern Med 142 7 (2005) 510-524
121. Mehta R.L., Pascual M.T., Soroko S., et al. Diuretics, mortality, and nonrecovery of renal function in acute renal failure. JAMA 288 20 (2002) 2547-2553
122. Uchino S., Doig G.S., Bellomo R., et al. Diuretics and mortality in acute renal failure. Crit Care Med 32 8 (2004) 1669-1677
123. Moore R.D., Smith C.R., Lipsky J.J., et al. Risk factors for nephrotoxicity in patients treated with aminoglycosides. Ann Intern Med 100 3 (1984) 352-357
124. Rich M.W., and Crecelius C.A. Incidence, risk factors, and clinical course of acute renal insufficiency after cardiac catheterization in patients 70 years of age or older. A prospective study. Arch Intern Med 150 6 (1990) 1237-1242
125. Iseki K., Kinjo K., Iseki C., et al. Relationship between predicted creatinine clearance and proteinuria and the risk of developing ESRD in Okinawa, Japan. Am J Kidney Dis 44 5 (2004) 806-814
126. Wetzels J.F., Kiemeney L.A., Swinkels D.W., et al. Age- and gender-specific reference values of estimated GFR in Caucasians: the Nijmegen Biomedical Study. Kidney Int 72 5 (2007) 632-637
127. Mehran R., Aymong E.D., Nikolsky E., et al. A simple risk score for prediction of contrast-induced nephropathy after percutaneous coronary intervention: development and initial validation. J Am Coll Cardiol 44 7 (2004) 1393-1399
128. Barrett B.J. Contrast nephrotoxicity. J Am Soc Nephrol 5 2 (1994) 125-137
129. Lautin E.M., Freeman N.J., Schoenfeld A.H., et al. Radiocontrast-associated renal dysfunction: incidence and risk factors. AJR Am J Roentgenol 157 1 (1991) 49-58
130. Lepor N.E. A review of pharmacologic interventions to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy. Rev Cardiovasc Med 4 Suppl 5 (2003) S34-S42
131. Masuda M., Yamada T., Mine T., et al. Comparison of usefulness of sodium bicarbonate versus sodium chloride to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing an emergent coronary procedure. Am J Cardiol 100 5 (2007) 781-786
132. Solomon R., and Deray G. How to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy and manage risk patients: practical recommendations. Kidney Int Suppl 100 (Apr 2006) S51-S53
133. McCullough P.A., Stacul F., Becker C.R., et al. Contrast-Induced Nephropathy (CIN) Consensus Working Panel: executive summary. Rev Cardiovasc Med 7 4 (2006) 177-197
134. Merten G.J., Burgess W.P., Gray L.V., et al. Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 291 19 (2004) 2328-2334
135. Joannidis M., Schmid M., and Wiedermann C.J. Prevention of contrast media-induced nephropathy by isotonic sodium bicarbonate: a meta-analysis. Wien Klin Wochenschr 120 23-24 (2008) 742-748
136. Navaneethan S.D., Singh S., Appasamy S., et al. Sodium bicarbonate therapy for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis 53 4 (2009) 617-627
137. Kay J., Chow W.H., Chan T.M., et al. Acetylcysteine for prevention of acute deterioration of renal function following elective coronary angiography and intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 289 5 (2003) 553-558
138. Shyu K.G., Cheng J.J., and Kuan P. Acetylcysteine protects against acute renal damage in patients with abnormal renal function undergoing a coronary procedure. J Am Coll Cardiol 40 8 (2002) 1383-1388
139. Tepel M., van der Giet M., Schwarzfeld C., et al. Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine. N Engl J Med 343 3 (2000) 180-184
140. Nallamothu B.K., Shojania K.G., Saint S., et al. Is acetylcysteine effective in preventing contrast-related nephropathy? A meta-analysis. Am J Med 117 12 (2004) 938-947
141. Marenzi G., Assanelli E., Marana I., et al. N-Acetylcysteine and contrast-induced nephropathy in primary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 354 26 (2006) 2773-2782
142. Bagshaw S.M., McAlister F.A., Manns B.J., et al. Acetylcysteine in the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a case study of the pitfalls in the evolution of evidence. Arch Intern Med 166 2 (2006) 161-166
143. Birck R., Krzossok S., Markowetz F., et al. Acetylcysteine for prevention of contrast nephropathy: meta-analysis. Lancet 362 9384 (2003) 598-603
144. Farrington K., Levison D.A., Greenwood R.N., et al. Renal biopsy in patients with unexplained renal impairment and normal kidney size. Q J Med 70 263 (1989) 221-233
145. Haas M., Spargo B.H., Wit E.J., et al. Etiologies and outcome of acute renal insufficiency in older adults: a renal biopsy study of 259 cases. Am J Kidney Dis 35 3 (2000) 433-447
146. Davison A.M., and Jones C.H. Acute interstitial nephritis in the elderly: a report from the UK MRC Glomerulonephritis Register and a review of the literature. Nephrol Dial Transplant 13 Suppl 7 (1998) 12-16
147. Baker R.J., and Pusey C.D. The changing profile of acute tubulointerstitial nephritis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19 1 (2004) 8-11
148. Corwin H.L., Korbet S.M., and Schwartz M.M. Clinical correlates of eosinophiluria. Arch Intern Med 145 6 (1985) 1097-1099
149. Nolan III C.R., Anger M.S., and Kelleher S.P. Eosinophiluria - a new method of detection and definition of the clinical spectrum. N Engl J Med 315 24 (1986) 1516-1519
150. Rossert J. Drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis. Kidney Int 60 2 (2001) 804-817
151. Galpin J.E., Shinaberger J.H., Stanley T.M., et al. Acute interstitial nephritis due to methicillin. Am J Med 65 5 (1978) 756-765
152. Gonzalez E., Gutierrez E., Galeano C., et al. Early steroid treatment improves the recovery of renal function in patients with drug-induced acute interstitial nephritis. Kidney Int 73 8 (2008) 940-946
153. Clarkson M.R., Giblin L., O'Connell F.P., et al. Acute interstitial nephritis: clinical features and response to corticosteroid therapy. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19 11 (2004) 2778-2783
154. Porile J.L., Bakris G.L., and Garella S. Acute interstitial nephritis with glomerulopathy due to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents: a review of its clinical spectrum and effects of steroid therapy. J Clin Pharmacol 30 5 (1990) 468-475
155. Kleinknecht D. Interstitial nephritis, the nephrotic syndrome, and chronic renal failure secondary to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Semin Nephrol 15 3 (1995) 228-235
156. Scolari F., Ravani P., Pola A., et al. Predictors of renal and patient outcomes in atheroembolic renal disease: a prospective study. J Am Soc Nephrol 14 6 (2003) 1584-1590
157. Thadhani R.I., Camargo Jr. C.A., Xavier R.J., et al. Atheroembolic renal failure after invasive procedures. Natural history based on 52 histologically proven cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 74 6 (1995) 350-358
158. Montoliu J., Darnell A., Torras A., et al. Acute and rapidly progressive forms of glomerulonephritis in the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 29 3 (1981) 108-116
159. Moorthy A.V., and Zimmerman S.W. Renal disease in the elderly: clinicopathologic analysis of renal disease in 115 elderly patients. Clin Nephrol 14 5 (1980) 223-229
160. Arieff A.I., Anderson R.J., and Massry S.G. Acute glomerulonephritis in the elderly. Geriatrics 26 9 (1971) 74-84
161. Potvliege P.R., De Roy G., and Dupuis F. Necropsy study on glomerulonephritis in the elderly. J Clin Pathol 28 11 (1975) 891-898
162. Modesto-Segonds A., Ah-Soune M.F., Durand D., et al. Renal biopsy in the elderly. Am J Nephrol 13 1 (1993) 27-34
163. Watts R.A., Lane S.E., Bentham G., et al. Epidemiology of systemic vasculitis: a ten-year study in the United Kingdom. Arthritis Rheum 43 2 (2000) 414-419
164. Booth A.D., Almond M.K., Burns A., et al. Outcome of ANCA-associated renal vasculitis: a 5-year retrospective study. Am J Kidney Dis 41 4 (2003) 776-784
165. de Lind van Wijngaarden R.A., Hauer H.A., Wolterbeek R., et al. Clinical and histologic determinants of renal outcome in ANCA-associated vasculitis: a prospective analysis of 100 patients with severe renal involvement. J Am Soc Nephrol 17 8 (2006) 2264-2274
166. Furci L., Medici G., Baraldi A., et al. Rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis in the elderly. Long-term results. Contrib Nephrol 105 (1993) 98-101
167. Higgins R.M., Goldsmith D.J., Connolly J., et al. Vasculitis and rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis in the elderly. Postgrad Med J 72 843 (1996) 41-44
168. Arora P., Kher V., Kohli H.S., et al. Acute renal failure in the elderly: experience from a single centre in India. Nephrol Dial Transplant 8 9 (1993) 827-830
169. Kaplan S.A., Wein A.J., Staskin D.R., et al. Urinary retention and post-void residual urine in men: separating truth from tradition. J Urol 180 1 (2008) 47-54
170. Kolman C., Girman C.J., Jacobsen S.J., et al. Distribution of post-void residual urine volume in randomly selected men. J Urol 161 1 (1999) 122-127
171. Cronan J.J. Contemporary concepts in imaging urinary tract obstruction. Radiol Clin North Am 29 3 (1991) 527-542
172. Naidich J.B., Rackson M.E., Mossey R.T., et al. Nondilated obstructive uropathy: percutaneous nephrostomy performed to reverse renal failure. Radiology 160 3 (1986) 653-657
173. Webb J.A., Reznek R.H., White F.E., et al. Can ultrasound and computed tomography replace high-dose urography in patients with impaired renal function?. Q J Med 53 211 (1984) 411-425
174. Webb J.A. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis of renal obstruction. BMJ 301 6758 (1990) 944-946
175. Gillenwater J.Y., Westervelt Jr. F.B., Vaughan Jr. E.D., et al. Renal function after release of chronic unilateral hydronephrosis in man. Kidney Int 7 3 (1975) 179-186
176. Hoffman L.M., and Suki W.N. Obstructive uropathy mimicking volume depletion. JAMA 236 18 (1976) 2096-2097
177. Sarmina I., and Resnick M.I. Obstructive uropathy in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Urol 141 4 (1989) 866-869
178. Druml W. Nutritional management of acute renal failure. J Ren Nutr 15 1 (2005) 63-70
179. Palevsky P.M. Renal replacement therapy I: indications and timing. Crit Care Clin 21 2 (2005) 347-356
180. Palevsky P.M. Clinical review: timing and dose of continuous renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 11 6 (2007) 232
181. Rondon-Berrios H., and Palevsky P.M. Treatment of acute kidney injury: an update on the management of renal replacement therapy. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 16 2 (2007) 64-70
182. Augustine J.J., Sandy D., Seifert T.H., et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing intermittent with continuous dialysis in patients with ARF. Am J Kidney Dis 44 6 (2004) 1000-1007
183. Mehta R.L., McDonald B., Gabbai F.B., et al. A randomized clinical trial of continuous versus intermittent dialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int 60 3 (2001) 1154-1163
184. Vinsonneau C., Camus C., Combes A., et al. Continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration versus intermittent haemodialysis for acute renal failure in patients with multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 368 9533 (2006) 379-385
185. Palevsky P.M., Zhang J.H., O'Connor T.Z., et al. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med 359 1 (2008) 7-20
186. Cruz D.N., and Ronco C. Acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit: current trends in incidence and outcome. Crit Care 11 4 (2007) 149
187. Chertow G.M., Soroko S.H., Paganini E.P., et al. Mortality after acute renal failure: models for prognostic stratification and risk adjustment. Kidney Int 70 6 (2006) 1120-1126
188. Rodgers H., Staniland J.R., Lipkin G.W., et al. Acute renal failure: a study of elderly patients. Age Ageing 19 1 (1990) 36-42
189. Liano F., Felipe C., Tenorio M.T., et al. Long-term outcome of acute tubular necrosis: a contribution to its natural history. Kidney Int 71 7 (2007) 679-686