Obesity in the Intensive Care Unit

Clinics in Chest Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 581-599

  Honiden, Shyoko ^a   McArdle, John R ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Critical illness; Drug dosing; Intensive care unit; Mechanical ventilation; Obesity

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE DERIVATIVE; AMIODARONE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CEFAZOLIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CIPROFLOXACIN; CORTICOSTEROID; DALTEPARIN; DIAZEPAM; DOPAMINE; DROTRECOGIN; ENOXAPARIN; FIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; HEPARIN; HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; MIDAZOLAM; NADROPARIN; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENT; OPIATE; PROPOFOL; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; REMIFENTANIL; TINZAPARIN; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ABDOMINAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME; ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; ANALGESIA; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; ASPIRATION; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CENTRAL VENOUS CATHETER; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL DECISION MAKING; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CRITICAL ILLNESS; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DECOMPRESSION; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE TITRATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEMODYNAMIC MONITORING; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFECTION; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTESTINE MOTILITY; INTUBATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG EMBOLISM; LUNG FUNCTION; LUNG VENTILATION PERFUSION RATIO; NONHUMAN; NURSING CARE; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; OBESITY; OPTIMAL DRUG DOSE; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PATIENT CARE; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; REVIEW; SEDATION; SEPSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SPINAL CORD INJURY; STOMACH BYPASS; THROMBOEMBOLISM; UNCERTAINTY; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE; LUNG DISEASES; OBESITY;

EID: 68849088725     PISSN: 02725231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2009.05.007     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Ogden C.L., Carroll M.D., Curtin L.R., et al. Prevalence of overweight and obesity in the United States, 1999-2004. JAMA 295 (2006) 1549
2. Wang Y., and Beydoun M.A. The obesity epidemic in the United States-gender, age, socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and geographic characteristics: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Epidemiol Rev 29 (2007) 6
3. Wang Y., Beydoun M.A., Liang L., et al. Will all Americans become overweight or obese? Estimating the progression and cost of the US obesity epidemic. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16 (2008) 2323
4. Joffe A., and Wood K. Obesity in critical care. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 20 (2007) 113
5. Alexander J.K., Dennis E.W., Smith W.G., et al. Blood volume, cardiac output, and distribution of systemic blood flow in extreme obesity. Cardiovasc Res Cent Bull 1 (1962) 39
6. Alpert M.A., Singh A., Terry B.E., et al. Effect of exercise on left ventricular systolic function and reserve in morbid obesity. Am J Cardiol 63 (1989) 1478
7. de Divitiis O., Fazio S., Petitto M., et al. Obesity and cardiac function. Circulation 64 (1981) 477
8. Alexander J.K. Obesity and cardiac performance. Am J Cardiol 14 (1964) 860
9. Nakajima T., Fujioka S., Tokunaga K., et al. Noninvasive study of left ventricular performance in obese patients: influence of duration of obesity. Circulation 71 (1985) 481
10. Karason K., Wallentin I., Larsson B., et al. Effects of obesity and weight loss on left ventricular mass and relative wall thickness: survey and intervention study. BMJ 315 (1997) 912
11. Ku C.S., Lin S.L., Wang D.J., et al. Left ventricular filling in young normotensive obese adults. Am J Cardiol 73 (1994) 613
12. Alpert M.A., Lambert C.R., Terry B.E., et al. Effect of weight loss on left ventricular diastolic filling in morbid obesity. Am J Cardiol 76 (1995) 1198
13. Zema M.J., and Caccavano M. Feasibility of detailed M-mode echocardiographic examination in markedly obese adults: prospective study of 50 patients. J Clin Ultrasound 10 (1982) 31
14. Alpert M.A. Obesity cardiomyopathy: pathophysiology and evolution of the clinical syndrome. Am J Med Sci 321 (2001) 225
15. Alpert M.A., and Hashimi M.W. Obesity and the heart. Am J Med Sci 306 (1993) 117
16. Messerli F.H., Sundgaard-Riise K., Reisin E., et al. Disparate cardiovascular effects of obesity and arterial hypertension. Am J Med 74 (1983) 808
17. Parameswaran K., Todd D.C., and Soth M. Altered respiratory physiology in obesity. Can Respir J 13 (2006) 203
18. Sharp J.T., Henry J.P., Sweany S.K., et al. The total work of breathing in normal and obese men. J Clin Invest 43 (1964) 728
19. Pelosi P., Croci M., Ravagnan I., et al. Total respiratory system, lung, and chest wall mechanics in sedated-paralyzed postoperative morbidly obese patients. Chest 109 (1996) 144
20. Koenig S.M. Pulmonary complications of obesity. Am J Med Sci 321 (2001) 249
21. Malhotra A., and Hillman D. Obesity and the lung: 3. Obesity, respiration and intensive care. Thorax 63 (2008) 925
22. Rubinstein I., Zamel N., DuBarry L., et al. Airflow limitation in morbidly obese, nonsmoking men. Ann Intern Med 112 (1990) 828
23. Kress J.P., Pohlman A.S., Alverdy J., et al. The impact of morbid obesity on oxygen cost of breathing (VO(2RESP)) at rest. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160 (1999) 883
24. Fritts Jr. H.W., Filler J., Fishman A.P., et al. The efficiency of ventilation during voluntary hyperpnea: studies in normal subjects and in dyspneic patients with either chronic pulmonary emphysema or obesity. J Clin Invest 38 (1959) 1339
25. Kaufman B.J., Ferguson M.H., and Cherniack R.M. Hypoventilation in obesity. J Clin Invest 38 (1959) 500
26. Marti A., Marcos A., and Martinez J.A. Obesity and immune function relationships. Obes Rev 2 (2001) 131
27. Dixit V.D. Adipose-immune interactions during obesity and caloric restriction: reciprocal mechanisms regulating immunity and health span. J Leukoc Biol 84 (2008) 882
28. Karagiannides I., and Pothoulakis C. Obesity, innate immunity and gut inflammation. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 23 (2007) 661
29. Lamas O., Marti A., and Martinez J.A. Obesity and immunocompetence. Eur J Clin Nutr 56 Suppl 3 (2002) S42
30. Loskutoff D.J., and Samad F. The adipocyte and hemostatic balance in obesity: studies of PAI-1. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 18 (1998) 1
31. Geerts W.H., Pineo G.F., Heit J.A., et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: the Seventh ACCP Conference on antithrombotic and thrombolytic therapy. Chest 126 (2004) 338S
32. Carmody B.J., Sugerman H.J., Kellum J.M., et al. Pulmonary embolism complicating bariatric surgery: detailed analysis of a single institution's 24-year experience. J Am Coll Surg 203 (2006) 831
33. Hamad G.G., and Bergqvist D. Venous thromboembolism in bariatric surgery patients: an update of risk and prevention. Surg Obes Relat Dis 3 (2007) 97
34. Davis G., Patel J.A., and Gagne D.J. Pulmonary considerations in obesity and the bariatric surgical patient. Med Clin North Am 91 (2007) 433
35. Goldhaber S.Z., Grodstein F., Stampfer M.J., et al. A prospective study of risk factors for pulmonary embolism in women. JAMA 277 (1997) 642
36. Hansson P.O., Eriksson H., Welin L., et al. Smoking and abdominal obesity: risk factors for venous thromboembolism among middle-aged men: "the study of men born in 1913.". Arch Intern Med 159 (1886) 1999
37. Stein P.D., Beemath A., and Olson R.E. Obesity as a risk factor in venous thromboembolism. Am J Med 118 (2005) 978
38. El-Solh A.A. Clinical approach to the critically ill, morbidly obese patient. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 169 (2004) 557
39. Scholten D.J., Hoedema R.M., and Scholten S.E. A comparison of two different prophylactic dose regimens of low molecular weight heparin in bariatric surgery. Obes Surg 12 (2002) 19
40. Hamad G.G., and Choban P.S. Enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis in morbidly obese patients undergoing bariatric surgery: findings of the prophylaxis against VTE outcomes in bariatric surgery patients receiving enoxaparin (PROBE) study. Obes Surg 15 (2005) 1368
41. Kalfarentzos F., Stavropoulou F., Yarmenitis S., et al. Prophylaxis of venous thromboembolism using two different doses of low-molecular-weight heparin (nadroparin) in bariatric surgery: a prospective randomized trial. Obes Surg 11 (2001) 670
42. Hainer J.W., Barrett J.S., Assaid C.A., et al. Dosing in heavy-weight/obese patients with the LMWH, tinzaparin: a pharmacodynamic study. Thromb Haemost 87 (2002) 817
43. Tapson V.F., Carroll B.A., Davidson B.L., et al. The diagnostic approach to acute venous thromboembolism. Clinical practice guideline. American Thoracic Society. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160 (1999) 1043
44. Nilsson M., Johnsen R., Ye W., et al. Obesity and estrogen as risk factors for gastroesophageal reflux symptoms. JAMA 290 (2003) 66
45. Corley D.A., Kubo A., and Zhao W. Abdominal obesity, ethnicity and gastro-oesophageal reflux symptoms. Gut 56 (2007) 756
46. Friedenberg F.K., Xanthopoulos M., Foster G.D., et al. The association between gastroesophageal reflux disease and obesity. Am J Gastroenterol 103 (2008) 2111
47. Kalinowski C.P., and Kirsch J.R. Strategies for prophylaxis and treatment for aspiration. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 18 (2004) 719
48. Andrews A.D., Brock-Utne J.G., and Downing J.W. Protection against pulmonary acid aspiration with ranitidine. A new histamine H2-receptor antagonist. Anaesthesia 37 (1982) 22
49. Nishina K., Mikawa K., Maekawa N., et al. A comparison of lansoprazole, omeprazole, and ranitidine for reducing preoperative gastric secretion in adult patients undergoing elective surgery. Anesth Analg 82 (1996) 832
50. Drakulovic M.B., Torres A., Bauer T.T., et al. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet 354 (1851) 1999
51. Valles J., Artigas A., Rello J., et al. Continuous aspiration of subglottic secretions in preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 122 (1995) 179
52. Lambert D.M., Marceau S., and Forse R.A. Intra-abdominal pressure in the morbidly obese. Obes Surg 15 (2005) 1225
53. Malbrain M.L., and De Iaet I.E. Intra-abdominal hypertension: evolving concepts. Clin Chest Med 30 (2009) 45
54. Podnos Y.D., Jimenez J.C., Wilson S.E., et al. Complications after laparoscopic gastric bypass: a review of 3464 cases. Arch Surg 138 (2003) 957
55. Hamilton E.C., Sims T.L., Hamilton T.T., et al. Clinical predictors of leak after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass for morbid obesity. Surg Endosc 17 (2003) 679
56. Levi D., Goodman E.R., Patel M., et al. Critical care of the obese and bariatric surgical patient. Crit Care Clin 19 (2003) 11
57. Pieracci F.M., Barie P.S., and Pomp A. Critical care of the bariatric patient. Crit Care Med 34 (2006) 1796
58. Brown C.V., Neville A.L., Rhee P., et al. The impact of obesity on the outcomes of 1,153 critically injured blunt trauma patients. J Trauma 59 (2005) 1048
59. Bochicchio G.V., Joshi M., Bochicchio K., et al. Impact of obesity in the critically ill trauma patient: a prospective study. J Am Coll Surg 203 (2006) 533
60. Oliveros H., and Villamor E. Obesity and mortality in critically ill adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16 (2008) 515
61. Ray D.E., Matchett S.C., Baker K., et al. The effect of body mass index on patient outcomes in a medical ICU. Chest 127 (2005) 2125
62. Goulenok C., Monchi M., Chiche J.D., et al. Influence of overweight on ICU mortality: a prospective study. Chest 125 (2004) 1441
63. El-Solh A., Sikka P., Bozkanat E., et al. Morbid obesity in the medical ICU. Chest 120 (2001) 1989
64. El-Solh A.A., Aquilina A., Pineda L., et al. Noninvasive ventilation for prevention of post-extubation respiratory failure in obese patients. Eur Respir J 28 (2006) 588
65. Burns S.M., Egloff M.B., Ryan B., et al. Effect of body position on spontaneous respiratory rate and tidal volume in patients with obesity, abdominal distension and ascites. Am J Crit Care 3 (1994) 102
66. Boyce J.R., Ness T., Castroman P., et al. A preliminary study of the optimal anesthesia positioning for the morbidly obese patient. Obes Surg 13 (2003) 4
67. Grant P., and Newcombe M. Emergency management of the morbidly obese. Emerg Med Australas 16 (2004) 309
68. Rao S.L., Kunselman A.R., Schuler H.G., et al. Laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation in the head-elevated position in obese patients: a randomized, controlled, equivalence trial. Anesth Analg 107 (2008) 1912
69. El-Khatib M.F., Kanazi G., and Baraka A.S. Noninvasive bilevel positive airway pressure for preoxygenation of the critically ill morbidly obese patient. Can J Anaesth 54 (2007) 744
70. Frappier J., Guenoun T., Journois D., et al. Airway management using the intubating laryngeal mask airway for the morbidly obese patient. Anesth Analg 96 (2003) 1510
71. Dhonneur G., Abdi W., Ndoko S.K., et al. Video-assisted versus conventional tracheal intubation in morbidly obese patients. Obes Surg (2008)
72. Rose D.K., Cohen M.M., Wigglesworth D.F., et al. Critical respiratory events in the postanesthesia care unit. Patient, surgical, and anesthetic factors. Anesthesiology 81 (1994) 410
73. Moyers G., and McDougle L. Use of the Cook airway exchange catheter in "bridging" the potentially difficult extubation: a case report. AANA J 70 (2002) 275
74. Gilbert T.B., Seneff M.G., and Becker R.B. Facilitation of internal jugular venous cannulation using an audio-guided Doppler ultrasound vascular access device: results from a prospective, dual-center, randomized, crossover clinical study. Crit Care Med 23 (1995) 60
75. Papadimos T.J., Flores A.S., Schmidt M.S., et al. Bivona hyperflex tracheostomy tube occlusion causing spurious tachypnoea and tracheal ulceration. Eur J Anaesthesiol 24 (2007) 472
76. Tibballs J., Robertson C., and Wall R. Tracheal ulceration and obstruction associated with flexible Bivona tracheostomy tubes. Anaesth Intensive Care 34 (2006) 495
77. El Solh A.A., and Jaafar W. A comparative study of the complications of surgical tracheostomy in morbidly obese critically ill patients. Crit Care 11 (2007) R3
78. Byhahn C., Lischke V., Meininger D., et al. Peri-operative complications during percutaneous tracheostomy in obese patients. Anaesthesia 60 (2005) 12
79. Maxwell M.H., Waks A.U., Schroth P.C., et al. Error in blood-pressure measurement due to incorrect cuff size in obese patients. Lancet 2 (1982) 33
80. Beutler S., Schmidt U., and Michard F. Hemodynamic monitoring in obese patients: a big issue. Crit Care Med 32 (1981) 2004
81. Stelfox H.T., Ahmed S.B., Ribeiro R.A., et al. Hemodynamic monitoring in obese patients: the impact of body mass index on cardiac output and stroke volume. Crit Care Med 34 (2006) 1243
82. Charlebois D., and Wilmoth D. Critical care of patients with obesity. Crit Care Nurse 24 (2004) 19
83. Rand C.S., and Macgregor A.M. Morbidly obese patients' perceptions of social discrimination before and after surgery for obesity. South Med J 83 (1990) 1390
84. Winkelman C., and Maloney B. Obese ICU patients: resource utilization and outcomes. Clin Nurs Res 14 (2005) 303
85. Hurst S., Blanco K., Boyle D., et al. Bariatric implications of critical care nursing. Dimens Crit Care Nurs 23 (2004) 76
86. Nasraway Jr. S.A., Hudson-Jinks T.M., and Kelleher R.M. Multidisciplinary care of the obese patient with chronic critical illness after surgery. Crit Care Clin 18 (2002) 643
87. Nath A., Alpert M.A., Terry B.E., et al. Sensitivity and specificity of electrocardiographic criteria for left and right ventricular hypertrophy in morbid obesity. Am J Cardiol 62 (1988) 126
88. Malone A.M. Permissive underfeeding: its appropriateness in patients with obesity, patients on parenteral nutrition, and non-obese patients receiving enteral nutrition. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 9 (2007) 317
89. Miller J.P., and Choban P.S. Feeding the critically ill obese patient: the role of hypocaloric nutrition support. Respir Care Clin N Am 12 (2006) 593
90. Dickerson R.N. Hypocaloric feeding of obese patients in the intensive care unit. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 8 (2005) 189
91. Dickerson R.N., Boschert K.J., Kudsk K.A., et al. Hypocaloric enteral tube feeding in critically ill obese patients. Nutrition 18 (2002) 241
92. Cutts M.E., Dowdy R.P., Ellersieck M.R., et al. Predicting energy needs in ventilator-dependent critically ill patients: effect of adjusting weight for edema or adiposity. Am J Clin Nutr 66 (1997) 1250
93. Casati A., and Putzu M. Anesthesia in the obese patient: pharmacokinetic considerations. J Clin Anesth 17 (2005) 134
94. Bennett R., Batenhorst R., Graves D.A., et al. Variation in postoperative analgesic requirements in the morbidly obese following gastric bypass surgery. Pharmacotherapy 2 (1982) 50
95. Cheymol G. Effects of obesity on pharmacokinetics implications for drug therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 39 (2000) 215
96. Rand C.S., Kuldau J.M., and Yost R.L. Obesity and post-operative pain. J Psychosom Res 29 (1985) 43
97. Shibutani K., Inchiosa Jr. M.A., Sawada K., et al. Pharmacokinetic mass of fentanyl for postoperative analgesia in lean and obese patients. Br J Anaesth 95 (2005) 377
98. Egan T.D., Huizinga B., Gupta S.K., et al. Remifentanil pharmacokinetics in obese versus lean patients. Anesthesiology 89 (1998) 562
99. Abernethy D.R., Greenblatt D.J., Divoll M., et al. Prolonged accumulation of diazepam in obesity. J Clin Pharmacol 23 (1983) 369
100. Greenblatt D.J., Abernethy D.R., Locniskar A., et al. Effect of age, gender, and obesity on midazolam kinetics. Anesthesiology 61 (1984) 27
101. Servin F., Farinotti R., Haberer J.P., et al. Propofol infusion for maintenance of anesthesia in morbidly obese patients receiving nitrous oxide. A clinical and pharmacokinetic study. Anesthesiology 78 (1993) 657
102. Spruill W.J., Wade W.E., Huckaby W.G., et al. Achievement of anticoagulation by using a weight-based heparin dosing protocol for obese and nonobese patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 58 (2001) 2143
103. Kandrotas R.J. Heparin pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacokinet 22 (1992) 359
104. Ellison M.J., Sawyer W.T., and Mills T.C. Calculation of heparin dosage in a morbidly obese woman. Clin Pharm 8 (1989) 65
105. Hirsh J., Warkentin T.E., Shaughnessy S.G., et al. Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: mechanisms of action, pharmacokinetics, dosing, monitoring, efficacy, and safety. Chest 119 (2001) 64S
106. Yee W.P., and Norton L.L. Optimal weight base for a weight-based heparin dosing protocol. Am J Health Syst Pharm 55 (1998) 159
107. Schwiesow S.J., Wessell A.M., and Steyer T.E. Use of a modified dosing weight for heparin therapy in a morbidly obese patient. Ann Pharmacother 39 (2005) 753
108. Hirsh J., Guyatt G., Albers G.W., et al. Executive summary: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (8th edition). Chest 133 (2008) 71S
109. Simoneau M.D., Vachon A., and Picard F. Effect of prophylactic dalteparin on anti-factor Xa levels in morbidly obese patients after bariatric surgery. Obes Surg (2008)
110. Rowan B.O., Kuhl D.A., Lee M.D., et al. Anti-Xa levels in bariatric surgery patients receiving prophylactic enoxaparin. Obes Surg 18 (2008) 162
111. Simone E.P., Madan A.K., Tichansky D.S., et al. Comparison of two low-molecular-weight heparin dosing regimens for patients undergoing laparoscopic bariatric surgery. Surg Endosc 22 (2008) 2392
112. Cohen M., Demers C., Gurfinkel E.P., et al. A comparison of low-molecular-weight heparin with unfractionated heparin for unstable coronary artery disease. Efficacy and Safety of Subcutaneous Enoxaparin in Non-Q-Wave Coronary Events Study Group. N Engl J Med 337 (1997) 447
113. Antman E.M., McCabe C.H., Gurfinkel E.P., et al. Enoxaparin prevents death and cardiac ischemic events in unstable angina/non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. Results of the thrombolysis in myocardial infarction (TIMI) 11B trial. Circulation 100 (1999) 1593
114. Spinler S.A., Inverso S.M., Cohen M., et al. Safety and efficacy of unfractionated heparin versus enoxaparin in patients who are obese and patients with severe renal impairment: analysis from the ESSENCE and TIMI 11B studies. Am Heart J 146 (2003) 33
115. Sanderink G.J., Le Liboux A., Jariwala N., et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of enoxaparin in obese volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 72 (2002) 308
116. Smith J., and Canton E.M. Weight-based administration of dalteparin in obese patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 60 (2003) 683
117. Wilson S.J., Wilbur K., Burton E., et al. Effect of patient weight on the anticoagulant response to adjusted therapeutic dosage of low-molecular- weight heparin for the treatment of venous thromboembolism. Haemostasis 31 (2001) 42
118. Priglinger U., Delle Karth G., Geppert A., et al. Prophylactic anticoagulation with enoxaparin: Is the subcutaneous route appropriate in the critically ill?. Crit Care Med 31 (2003) 1405
119. Rutherford E.J., Schooler W.G., Sredzienski E., et al. Optimal dose of enoxaparin in critically ill trauma and surgical patients. J Trauma 58 (2005) 1167
120. Topol E.J. Reperfusion therapy for acute myocardial infarction with fibrinolytic therapy or combination reduced fibrinolytic therapy and platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibition: the GUSTO V randomised trial. Lancet 357 (1905) 2001
121. Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group. N Engl J Med 333 (1995) 1581
122. Pai M.P., and Bearden D.T. Antimicrobial dosing considerations in obese adult patients. Pharmacotherapy 27 (2007) 1081
123. Chiba K., Tsuchiya M., Kato J., et al. Cefotiam disposition in markedly obese athlete patients, Japanese sumo wrestlers. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 33 (1989) 1188
124. Mann H.J., and Buchwald H. Cefamandole distribution in serum, adipose tissue, and wound drainage in morbidly obese patients. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 20 (1986) 869
125. Yost R.L., and Derendorf H. Disposition of cefotaxime and its desacetyl metabolite in morbidly obese male and female subjects. Ther Drug Monit 8 (1986) 189
126. Forse R.A., Karam B., MacLean L.D., et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgery in morbidly obese patients. Surgery 106 (1989) 750
127. Mehta U., Malone M., and Alger S. Cefazolin use in clinically severe obese patients undergoing gastric restrictive surgery. Ann Pharmacother 29 (1995) 935
128. Allard S., Kinzig M., Boivin G., et al. Intravenous ciprofloxacin disposition in obesity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 54 (1993) 368
129. Caldwell J.B., and Nilsen A.K. Intravenous ciprofloxacin dosing in a morbidly obese patient. Ann Pharmacother 28 (1994) 806
130. Hollenstein U.M., Brunner M., Schmid R., et al. Soft tissue concentrations of ciprofloxacin in obese and lean subjects following weight-adjusted dosing. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 25 (2001) 354
131. Bauer L.A., Black D.J., and Lill J.S. Vancomycin dosing in morbidly obese patients. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 54 (1998) 621
132. Erstad B.L. Dosing of medications in morbidly obese patients in the intensive care unit setting. Intensive Care Med 30 (2004) 18
133. Roden D.M. Pharmacokinetics of amiodarone: implications for drug therapy. Am J Cardiol 72 (1993) 45F
134. Abernethy D.R., Greenblatt D.J., and Smith T.W. Digoxin disposition in obesity: clinical pharmacokinetic investigation. Am Heart J 102 (1981) 740
135. Christoff P.B., Conti D.R., Naylor C., et al. Procainamide disposition in obesity. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 17 (1983) 516
136. Cheymol G., Poirier J.M., Carrupt P.A., et al. Pharmacokinetics of beta-adrenoceptor blockers in obese and normal volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 43 (1997) 563
137. Abernethy D.R., and Greenblatt D.J. Lidocaine disposition in obesity. Am J Cardiol 53 (1984) 1183
138. Abernethy D.R., Greenblatt D.J., Matlis R., et al. Cimetidine disposition in obesity. Am J Gastroenterol 79 (1984) 91
139. Davis R.L., Quenzer R.W., Bozigian H.P., et al. Pharmacokinetics of ranitidine in morbidly obese women. DICP 24 (1990) 1040
140. Bracken M.B., Shepard M.J., Holford T.R., et al. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA 277 (1997) 1597
141. Nichols A.I., D'Ambrosio R., Pyszczynski N.A., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of prednisolone in obese rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 250 (1989) 963
142. Tsueda K., Warren J.E., McCafferty L.A., et al. Pancuronium bromide requirement during anesthesia for the morbidly obese. Anesthesiology 48 (1978) 438
143. Varin F., Ducharme J., Theoret Y., et al. Influence of extreme obesity on the body disposition and neuromuscular blocking effect of atracurium. Clin Pharmacol Ther 48 (1990) 18
144. Leykin Y., Pellis T., Lucca M., et al. The pharmacodynamic effects of rocuronium when dosed according to real body weight or ideal body weight in morbidly obese patients. Anesth Analg 99 (2004) 1086
145. Puhringer F.K., Keller C., Kleinsasser A., et al. Pharmacokinetics of rocuronium bromide in obese female patients. Eur J Anaesthesiol 16 (1999) 507
146. Schwartz A.E., Matteo R.S., Ornstein E., et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of vecuronium in the obese surgical patient. Anesth Analg 74 (1992) 515
147. Bentley J.B., Borel J.D., Vaughan R.W., et al. Weight, pseudocholinesterase activity, and succinylcholine requirement. Anesthesiology 57 (1982) 48
148. MacGregor D.A., Smith T.E., Prielipp R.C., et al. Pharmacokinetics of dopamine in healthy male subjects. Anesthesiology 92 (2000) 338
149. Klem C., Dasta J.F., Reilley T.E., et al. Variability in dobutamine pharmacokinetics in unstable critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med 22 (1994) 1926
150. Bernard G.R., Vincent J.L., Laterre P.F., et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 344 (2001) 699
151. Levy H., Small D., Heiselman D.E., et al. Obesity does not alter the pharmacokinetics of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in severe sepsis. Ann Pharmacother 39 (2005) 262
152. Diaz Jr. J.J., Norris P.R., Collier B.R., et al. Morbid obesity is not a risk factor for mortality in critically ill trauma patients. J Trauma 66 (2009) 226
153. Frat J.P., Gissot V., Ragot S., et al. Impact of obesity in mechanically ventilated patients: a prospective study. Intensive Care Med 34 (2008) 1991
154. Peake S.L., Moran J.L., Ghelani D.R., et al. The effect of obesity on 12-month survival following admission to intensive care: a prospective study. Crit Care Med 34 (2006) 2929
155. O'Brien Jr. J.M., Welsh C.H., Fish R.H., et al. Excess body weight is not independently associated with outcome in mechanically ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Ann Intern Med 140 (2004) 338
156. Akinnusi M.E., Pineda L.A., and El Solh A.A. Effect of obesity on intensive care morbidity and mortality: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 36 (2008) 151