Molecular taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography of nematodes belonging to the Trichinella genus

Infection, Genetics and Evolution

Volumn 9, Issue 4, 2009, Pages 606-616

  Pozio, Edoardo ^a   Hoberg, Eric ^b   La Rosa, Giuseppe ^a   Zarlenga, Dante S ^b  

^a ISTITUTO SUPERIORE DI SANITÀ   (Italy)

^b AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

Biogeography; Molecular taxonomy; Nematodes; Phylogeny; Trichinella; Zoonosis

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BIOGEOGRAPHY; CLADISTICS; DOMESTIC ANIMAL; GENE CONSTRUCT; GENE SEQUENCE; GENETIC SELECTION; GENOTYPE; GENUS; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HUMAN; METAZOON; MOLECULAR EVOLUTION; MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY; MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS; NEMATODE; NONHUMAN; PARASITISM; PHYLUM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SPECIES DIFFERENCE; SPECIES IDENTIFICATION; TAXONOMY; TRICHINELLA; TRICHINELLA BRITOVI; TRICHINELLA PSEUDOSPIRALIS; TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS;

ANIMALS; EVOLUTION, MOLECULAR; HUMANS; PHYLOGENY; SWINE; TOPOGRAPHY, MEDICAL; TRICHINELLA; TRICHINOSIS; ZOONOSES;

ANIMALIA; MAMMALIA; METAZOA; NEMATODA; SUS SCROFA DOMESTICA; TRICHINELLA; TRICHINELLA SPIRALIS;

EID: 68649087602     PISSN: 15671348     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.03.003     Document Type: Article

References (115)

1. Agosta S.J., and Klemens J.A. Ecological fitting by phenotypically flexible genotypes: implications for species associations, community assembly and evolution. Ecol. Lett. 11 (2008) 1123-1134
2. Ancelle T., Dupouy-Camet J., Bougnoux M.E., Fourestie V., Petit H., Mougeot G., Nozais J.P., and Lapierre J. Two outbreaks of trichinosis caused by horsemeat in France in 1985. Am. J. Epidemiol. 127 (1988) 1302-1311
3. Anonymous, 1964. Summary of the discussion. In: Corradetti, A., Ed., Proceedings of the 1st International Congress of Parasitology, Rome, September 21-26. Tamburini Editore, Milan, p. 697.
4. Appleyard G.D., Zarlenga D., Pozio E., and Gajadhar A.A. Differentiation of Trichinella genotypes by polymerase chain reaction using sequence-specific primers. J. Parasitol. 85 (1999) 556-559
5. Bandi C., La Rosa G., Comincini S., Damiani G., and Pozio E. Random amplified polymorphic DNA technique for the identification of Trichinella species. Parasitology 107 (1993) 419-424
6. Bandi C., La Rosa G., Bardin M.G., Damiani G., Comincini S., Tasciotti L., and Pozio E. Random amplified polymorphic DNA fingerprints of the eight taxa of Trichinella and their comparison with allozyme analysis. Parasitology 110 (1995) 401-407
7. Blaxter M.L., De Ley P., Garey J.R., Liu L.X., Scheldeman P., Vierstraete A., Vanfleteren J.R., Mackey L.Y., Dorris M., Frisse L.M., Vida J.T., and Thomas W.K. A molecular evolutionary framework for the phylum Nematoda. Nature 392 (1998) 71-75
8. Briggs J.C. Global biogeography (1995), Elsevier, Amsterdam
9. Britov V.A., and Boev S.N. Taxonomic rank of various strains of Trichinella and their circulation in nature. Vestnik. Akademii. Nauk. KSSR 28 (1972) 27-32
10. Brooks D.R., and McLennan D.A. The Nature of Diversity: An Evolutionary Voyage of Discovery (2002), University of Chicago Press, Chicago, USA
11. Chambers A.E., Almond N.M., Knight M., Simpson A.J., and Parkhouse R.M. Repetitive DNA as a tool for the identification and comparison of nematode variants: application to Trichinella isolates. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 21 (1986) 113-120
12. Cooke H.B.S., and Wilkinson A.F. Suidae and Tayassuidae. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge 435-482
13. Dame J.B., Murrell K.D., Worley D.E., and Schad G.A. Trichinella spiralis: genetic evidence for synanthropic subspecies in sylvatic hosts. Exp. Parasitol. 64 (1987) 195-203
14. De Ley P., and Blaxter M.L. Systematic position and phylogeny. In: Lee D.L. (Ed). The Biology of Nematodes (2002), Taylor & Francis, London 1-30
15. Dick T.A. Species, and infraspecific variation. In: Campbell W.C. (Ed). Trichinella and Trichinosis (1983), Plenum Press, New York and London pp. 31-73
16. Dick T.A., and Pozio E. Trichinella spp. and trichinellosis. In: Samuel W.M., Pybus M.J., and Kocan A.A. (Eds). Parasitic Diseases of Wild Mammals. 2nd ed. (2001), Iowa State University Press, Ames 380-396
17. Dick T.A., Lu M.C., deVos T., and Ma K. The use of the polymerase chain reaction to identify porcine isolates of Trichinella. J. Parasitol. 78 (1992) 145-148
18. Dupouy-Camet J., Kociecka W., Bruschi F., Bolas-Fernandez F., and Pozio E. Opinion on the diagnosis and treatment of human trichinellosis. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 3 (2002) 1117-1130
19. Flockhart H.A., Harrison S.E., Dobinson A.R., and James E.R. Enzyme polymorphism in Trichinella. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 76 (1982) 541-545
20. Folinsbee K.E., and Brooks D.R. Miocene hominoid biogeography: pulses of dispersal and differentiation. J. Biogeogr. 34 (2007) 383-397
21. Fukumoto S., Takechi M., Kamo H., and Yamaguchi T. Comparative studies on soluble protein profiles and isozyme patterns of seven Trichinella isolates. Parasitol. Res. 73 (1987) 352-357
22. Fukumoto S., Nagai D., Yazaki S., Kamo H., and Yamaguchi T. The molecular phylogenetic tree of the genus Trichinella constructed from isozyme patterns. Parasitol. Res. 74 (1988) 574-580
23. Garkavi B.L. Species of Trichinella isolated from wild animals. Veterinariya 10 (1972) 90-91
24. Gasser R.B., Zhu X.Q., Monti J.R., Dou L., Cai X., and Pozio E. PCR-SSCP of rDNA for the identification of Trichinella isolates from mainland China. Mol. Cel. Probes 12 (1998) 27-34
25. Gasser R.B., Hu M., Abs E.-O., Zarlenga D.S., and Pozio E. Non-isotopic single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis of sequence variability in ribosomal DNA expansion segments within the genus Trichinella (Nematoda: Adenophorea). Electrophoresis 25 (2004) 3357-3364
26. Halas D., Zamparo D., and Brooks D.R. A historical biogeographical protocol for studying diversification by taxon pulses. J. Biogeogr. 32 (2005) 249-260
27. Hoberg E.P. Foundations for an integrative parasitology: collections, archives and biodiversity informatics. Comp. Parasitol. 69 (2002) 124-131
28. Hoberg E.P., and Brooks D.R. A macroevolutionary mosaic: episodic host-switching, geographical colonization and diversification in complex host-parasite systems. J. Biogeogr. 35 (2008) 1533-1550
29. Holterman M., van der Wurff A., van den Elsen S., van Megen H., Bongers T., Holovachov O., Bakker J., and Helder J. Phylum-wide analysis of SSU rDNA reveals deep phylogenetic relationships among nematodes and accelerated evolution toward crown clades. Mol. Biol. Evol. 23 (2006) 1792-1800
30. Johnson W.E., Eizirik E., Pecon-Slattery J., Murphy W.J., Antunes A., Teeling E., and O'Brien S.J. The late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae: a genetic assessment. Science 311 (2006) 73-77
31. Jongwutiwes S., Chantachum N., Kraivichian P., Siriyasatien P., Putaporntip C., Tamburrini A., La Rosa G., Sreesunpasirikul C., Yingyourd P., and Pozio E. First outbreak of human trichinellosis caused by Trichinella pseudospiralis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26 (1998) 111-115
32. Kanai Y., Inoue T., Mano T., Nonaka N., Katakura K., and Oku Y. Epizootiological survey of Trichinella spp. infection in carnivores, rodents and insectivores in Hokkaido, Japan. Jpn. J. Vet. Res. 54 (2007) 175-182
33. Kapel C.M. Host diversity and biological characteristics of the Trichinella genotypes and their effect on transmission. Vet. Parasitol. 93 (2000) 263-278
34. Kapel C.M. Sylvatic and domestic Trichinella spp. in wild boars; infectivity, muscle larvae distribution, and antibody response. J. Parasitol. 87 (2001) 309-314
35. Kapel C.M., and Gamble H.R. Infectivity, persistence, and antibody response to domestic and sylvatic Trichinella spp. in experimentally infected pigs. Int. J. Parasitol. 30 (2000) 215-221
36. Khumjui C., Choomkasien P., Dekumyoy P., Kusolsuk T., Kongkaew W., Chalamaat M., and Jones J.L. Outbreak of trichinellosis caused by Trichinella papuae, Thailand, 2006. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 14 (2008) 1913-1915
37. Krivokapich S.J., Prous C.L., Gatti G.M., Confalonieri V., Molina V., Matarasso H., and Guarnera E. Molecular evidence for a novel encapsulated genotype of Trichinella from Patagonia, Argentina. Vet. Parasitol. 156 (2008) 234-240
38. La Grange L.J., Marucci G., and Pozio E. Trichinella zimbabwensis in wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) of South Africa. Vet. Parasitol. 161 (2009) 88-91
39. La Rosa G., and Pozio E. Molecular investigation of African isolates of Trichinella reveals genetic polymorphism in Trichinella nelsoni. Int. J. Parasitol. 30 (2000) 663-667
40. La Rosa G., Pozio E., Rossi P., and Murrell K.D. Allozyme analysis of Trichinella isolates from various host species and geographical regions. J. Parasitol. 78 (1992) 641-646
41. La Rosa G., Marucci G., Zarlenga D.S., and Pozio E. Trichinella pseudospiralis populations of the Palearctic region and their relationship with populations of the Nearctic and Australian regions. Int. J. Parasitol. 31 (2001) 297-305
42. La Rosa G., Marucci G., Zarlenga D.S., Casulli A., Zarnke R.L., and Pozio E. Molecular identification of natural hybrids between Trichinella nativa and Trichinella T6 provides evidence of gene flow and ongoing genetic divergence. Int. J. Parasitol. 33 (2003) 209-216
43. La Rosa G., Marucci G., and Pozio E. Biochemical analysis of encapsulated and non-encapsulated species of Trichinella (Nematoda, Trichinellidae) from cold- and warm-blooded animals reveals a high genetic divergence in the genus. Parasitol. Res. 91 (2003) 462-466
44. Lavrov D.V., and Brown W.M. Trichinella spiralis mtDNA: a nematode mitochondrial genome that encodes a putative ATP8 and normally structured tRNAS and has a gene arrangement relatable to those of coelomate metazoans. Genetics 157 (2001) 621-637
45. Lichtenfels J.R., Murrell K.D., and Pilitt P.A. Comparison of three subspecies of Trichinella spiralis by scanning electron microscopy. J. Parasitol. 69 (1983) 1131-1140
46. Maggenti A.R. Nematode higher classification as influenced by species and family concepts. In: Stone A.R., Platt H.M., and Khalil L.F. (Eds). Concepts in Nematode Systematics (1983), Academic Press, London 25-40
47. Malakauskas A., and Kapel C.M. Tolerance to low temperatures of domestic and sylvatic Trichinella spp. in rat muscle tissue. J. Parasitol. 89 (2003) 744-748
48. Malakauskas A., Paulauskas V., Järvis T., Keidans P., Eddi C., and Kapel C.M. Molecular epidemiology of Trichinella spp. in three Baltic countries: Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. Parasitol. Res. 100 (2007) 687-693
49. Marshall L.G., Webb S.D., Sepkoski J.J., and Raup D.M. Mammalian evolution and the great American interchange. Science 215 (1982) 1351-1357
50. Marucci G., La Grange L.J., La Rosa G., and Pozio E. Trichinella nelsoni and Trichinella T8 mixed infection in a lion (Panthera leo) of the Kruger National Park (South Africa). Vet. Parasitol. 159 (2009) 225-228
51. Meldal B.H., Debenham N.J., De Ley P., De Ley I.T., Vanfleteren J.R., Vierstraete A.R., Bert W., Borgonie G., Moens T., Tyler P.A., Austen M.C., Blaxter M.L., Rogers A.D., and Lambshead P.J. An improved molecular phylogeny of the Nematoda with special emphasis on marine taxa. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 42 (2007) 622-636
52. Mitreva, M., Jasmer, D.P., 2006. Biology and genome of Trichinella spiralis. In: The C. elegans Research Community, Eds., WormBook, pp. 1-21. doi/10.1895/wormbook.1.7.1, www.wormbook.org.
53. Mitreva M., and Jasmer D.P. Advances in the sequencing of the genome of the adenophorean nematode Trichinella spiralis. Parasitology 135 (2008) 869-880
54. Mitreva M., Jasmer D.P., Appleton J., Martin J., Dante M., Wylie T., Clifton S.W., Waterston R.H., and McCarter J.P. Gene discovery in the adenophorean nematode Trichinella spiralis: an analysis of transcription from three life cycle stages. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 137 (2004) 277-291
55. Mitreva M., Appleton J., McCarter J.P., and Jasmer D.P. Expressed sequence tags from life cycle stages of Trichinella spiralis: application to biology and parasite control. Vet. Parasitol. 132 (2005) 13-17
56. Murrell K.D., Stringfellow F., Dame J.B., Leiby D.A., Duffy C., and Schad G.A. Trichinella spiralis in an agricultural ecosystem. II. Evidence for natural transmission of Trichinella spiralis from domestic swine to wildlife. J. Parasitol. 73 (1987) 103-109
57. Murrell K.D., Lichtenfels R.J., Zarlenga D.S., and Pozio E. The systematics of the genus Trichinella with a key to species. Vet. Parasitol. 93 (2000) 293-307
58. Mydynski L.J., and Dick T.A. The use of enzyme polymorphisms to identify genetic differences in the genus Trichinella. J. Parasitol. 71 (1985) 671-677
59. Nagano I., Wu Z., Matsuo A., Pozio E., and Takahashi Y. Identification of Trichinella genotypes by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene. Int. J. Parasitol. 29 (1999) 1113-1120
60. Nelson G.S. Trichinosis in Africa. In: Gould S.E. (Ed). Trichinosis in Man and Animals (1970), Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, IL 473-492
61. Oivanen L., Kapel C.M.O., Pozio E., La Rosa G., Mikkonen T., and Sukura A. Associations between Trichinella species and host species in Finland. J. Parasitol. 88 (2002) 84-88
62. Owen R. Description of a microscopic entozoon infesting the muscles of the human body. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 1 (1835) 315-324
63. Owen I.L., and Reid S.A. Survival of Trichinella papuae muscle larvae in a pig carcass maintained under simulated natural conditions in Papua New Guinea. J. Helminthol. 81 (2007) 429-432
64. Owen I.L., Sims L.D., Wigglesworth M.C., and Puana I. Trichinellosis in Papua New Guinea. Aust. Vet. J. 78 (2000) 698-701
65. Owen I.L., Gomez Morales M.A., Pezzotti P., and Pozio E. Trichinella infection in a hunting population of Papua New Guinea suggests an ancient relationship between Trichinella and human beings. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 99 (2005) 618-624
66. Parkinson J., Mitreva M., Whitton C., Thomson M., Daub J., Martin J., Schmid R., Hall N., Barrell B., Waterston R.H., McCarter J.P., and Blaxter M.L. A transcriptomic analysis of the phylum Nematoda. Nat. Genet. 36 (2004) 1259-1267
67. Pozio E. Isoenzymatic typing of 23 Trichinella isolates. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 38 (1987) 111-116
68. Pozio E. The broad spectrum of Trichinella hosts: from cold- to warm-blooded animals. Vet. Parasitol. 132 (2005) 3-11
69. Pozio E. Taxonomy, biology and epidemiology of Trichinella parasites. In: Dupouy-Camet J., and Murrell K.D. (Eds). FAO/WHO/OIE Guidelines for the Surveillance, Management, Prevention and Control of Trichinellosis (2007), World Organisation for Animal Health Press, Paris 1-35
70. Pozio E. World distribution of Trichinella spp. infections in animals and humans. Vet. Parasitol. 149 (2007) 3-21
71. Pozio E., and La Rosa G. Short report: identification of the likely etiologic agent of human trichinellosis in Sicily (Italy) between 1933 and 1946. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59 (1998) 906-907
72. Pozio E., and La Rosa G. Trichinella murrelli n. sp: etiological agent of sylvatic trichinellosis in temperate areas of North America. J. Parasitol. 86 (2000) 134-139
73. Pozio E., and La Rosa G. PCR-derived methods for the identification of Trichinella parasites from animal and human samples. Methods Mol. Biol. 216 (2003) 299-309
74. Pozio E., and Murrell K.D. Systematics and epidemiology of Trichinella. Adv. Parasitol. 63 (2006) 367-439
75. Pozio E., and Zarlenga D.S. Recent advances on the taxonomy, systematics and epidemiology of Trichinella. Int. J. Parasitol. 35 (2005) 1191-1204
76. Pozio E., La Rosa G., and Rossi P. Trichinella Reference Centre. Parasitol. Today 5 (1989) 169-170
77. Pozio E., La Rosa G., Murrell K.D., and Lichtenfels J.R. Taxonomic revision of the genus Trichinella. J. Parasitol. 78 (1992) 654-659
78. Pozio E., Verster A., Braack L., De Meneghi D., and La Rosa G. Trichinellosis south of the Sahara. In: Campbell C.W., Pozio E., and Bruschi F. (Eds). Trichinellosis (1994), ISS Press, Rome, Italy 527-532
79. Pozio E., Bandi C., La Rosa G., Järvis T., Miller I., and Kapel C.M. Concurrent Infection with sibling Trichinella species in a natural host. Int. J. Parasitol. 25 (1995) 1247-1250
80. Pozio E., Serrano F.J., La Rosa G., Reina D., Perez-Martin E., and Navarrete I. Evidence of potential gene flow in Trichinella spiralis and in Trichinella britovi in Nature. J. Parasitol. 83 (1997) 163-166
81. Pozio E., De Meneghi D., Roelke-Parker M.E., and La Rosa G. Trichinella nelsoni in carnivores from the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania. J. Parasitol. 83 (1997) 1195-1198
82. Pozio E., Owen I.L., La Rosa G., Sacchi L., Rossi P., and Corona S. Trichinella papuae n. sp. (Nematoda), a new non-encapsulated species from domestic and sylvatic swine of Papua New Guinea. Int. J. Parasitol. 29 (1999) 1825-1839
83. Pozio E., Kapel C.M., and Gamble H.R. Specificity and sensitivity of random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis for the identification of single larvae of Trichinella after experimental infection of pigs. Parasitol. Res. 85 (1999) 504-506
84. Pozio E., La Rosa G., D'Ancona F., Amati M., Mancini Barbieri F., and De Giacomo M. Twelve years of activity of the International Trichinella Reference Centre. Parasite 8 (2001) S44-S46
85. Pozio E., Foggin C.M., Marucci G., La Rosa G., Sacchi L., Corona S., Rossi P., and Mukaratirwa S. Trichinella zimbabwensis n.sp. (Nematoda), a new non-encapsulated species from crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in Zimbabwe also infecting mammals. Int. J. Parasitol. 32 (2002) 1787-1799
86. Pozio E., Marucci G., Casulli A., Sacchi L., Mukaratirwa S., Foggin C.M., and La Rosa G. Trichinella papuae and Trichinella zimbabwensis induce infection in experimentally infected varans, caimans, pythons and turtles. Parasitology 128 (2004) 333-342
87. Pozio E., Pagani P., Marucci G., Zarlenga D.S., Hoberg E.P., De Meneghi D., La Rosa G., and Rossi L. Trichinella britovi etiological agent of sylvatic trichinellosis in the Republic of Guinea (West Africa) and a re-evaluation of geographical distribution for encapsulated species in Africa. Int. J. Parasitol. 35 (2005) 955-960
88. Pozio E., Owen I.L., Marucci G., and La Rosa G. Inappropriate feeding practice favors the transmission of Trichinella papuae from wild pigs to saltwater crocodiles in Papua New Guinea. Vet. Parasitol. 127 (2005) 245-251
89. Pozio E., Kapel C.M., Gajadhar A.A., Boireau P., Dupouy-Camet J., and Gamble H.R. Trichinella in pork: current knowledge on the suitability of freezing as a public health measure. Euro Surveill. 11 (2006) E061116.1
90. Pozio E., Foggin C.M., Gelanew T., Marucci G., Hailu A., Rossi P., and Gomez Morales M.A. Trichinella zimbabwensis in wild reptiles of Zimbabwe and Mozambique and farmed reptiles of Ethiopia. Vet. Parasitol. 143 (2007) 305-310
91. Pozio E., Rinaldi L., Marucci G., Musella V., Galati F., Cringoli G., Boireau P., and La Rosa G. Hosts and habitats of Trichinella spiralis and Trichinella britovi in Europe. Int. J. Parasitol. 39 (2009) 71-79
92. Rafter P., Marucci G., Brangan P., and Pozio E. Rediscovery of Trichinella spiralis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Ireland after 30 years of oblivion. J. Infect. 50 (2005) 61-65
93. Railliet A. Quelques rectifications a la nomenclature des parasites. Recueil de Médicine Véterinaire 3 (1896) 157-161
94. Rausch R.L. Trichinosis in the Arctic. In: Gould S.E. (Ed). Trichinosis in man and animals (1970), Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Springfield, IL 348-373
95. Rausch R.L., Babero B.B., Rausch V.R., and Schiller E.L. Studies on the helminth fauna of Alaska. XXVII. The occurrence of larvae of Trichinella spiralis in Alaskan mammals. J. Parasitol. 42 (1956) 259-271
96. Reichard M.V., Torretti L., Snider T.A., Garvon J.M., Marucci G., and Pozio E. Trichinella T6 and Trichinella nativa in wolverines (Gulo gulo) from Nunavut, Canada. Parasitol. Res. 103 (2008) 657-661
97. Rombout Y.B., Bosch S., and van Der Giessen J.W. Detection and identification of eight Trichinella genotypes by reverse line blot hybridization. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39 (2001) 642-646
98. Rosenthal B.M., La Rosa G., Zarlenga D., Dunams D., Chunyu Y., Mingyuan L., and Pozio E. Human dispersal of Trichinella spiralis in domesticated pigs. Infect. Genet. Evol. 8 (2008) 799-805
99. Savage R.J.G. Carnivora. In: Maglio V.J., and Cooke H.B.S. (Eds). Evolution of African Mammals (1978), Harvard University Press, Cambridge 249-267
100. Soule C., Guillou J.P., Dupouy-Camet J., Vallet C., and Pozio E. Differentiation of Trichinella isolates by polymerase chain reaction. Parasitol. Res. 79 (1993) 461-465
101. van der Giessen J.W., Fonville M., Briels I., and Pozio E. Phylogenetic analysis of encapsulated and non-encapsulated Trichinella species by studying the 5S rDNA tandemly repeated intergenic region. Vet. Parasitol. 132 (2005) 51-55
102. Voronov D.A., Panchin Y.V., and Spiridonov S.E. Nematode phylogeny and embryology. Nature 395 (1998) 28
103. Wang H., Zhang Y., Lao W., and Wu Z. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of genomic DNA of 5 strains of Trichinella spiralis in China. Chinese Med. Sci. J. 10 (1995) 131-135
104. Wu Z., Nagano I., and Takahashi Y. The detection of Trichinella with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers constructed using sequences of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) or sequences of complementary DNA encoding excretory-secretory (E-S) glycoproteins. Parasitology 117 (1998) 173-183
105. Wu Z., Nagano I., Pozio E., and Takahashi Y. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) for the identification of Trichinella isolates. Parasitology 118 (1999) 211-218
106. Wu Z., Nakada T., Nagano I., and Takahashi Y. DNA fingerprints of Trichinella as revealed by restriction fragment length polymorphism and single-strand conformational polymorphism (RFLP-SSCP). Mol. Cel. Probes 14 (2000) 291-297
107. Wu Z., Snabel V., Pozio E., Hurnikova Z., Nareaho A., Nagano I., and Takahashi Y. Genetic relationships among Trichinella pseudospiralis isolates from Australian, Nearctic, and Palearctic regions. Parasitol. Res. 101 (2007) 1567-1573
108. Zarlenga D.S. Molecular aspects of speciation in the genus Trichinella. In: Ortega-Pierres G., Gamble R., van Knapen F., and Wakelin D. (Eds). Trichinellosis V9 (1998), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, D.F. Mexico 43-46
109. Zarlenga D.S., and Barta J.R. DNA analysis in the diagnosis of infection and in the speciation of nematode parasites. Rev. Scient. Tech. Office Int. Epizooties 9 (1990) 533-554
110. Zarlenga D.S., and Dame J.B. The identification and characterization of a break within the large subunit ribosomal RNA of Trichinella spiralis: comparison of gap sequences within the genus. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 51 (1992) 281-290
111. Zarlenga D.S., Aschenbrenner R.A., and Lichtenfels J.R. Variations in microsatellite sequences provide evidence for population differences and multiple ribosomal gene repeats within Trichinella pseudospiralis. J. Parasitol. 82 (1996) 534-538
112. Zarlenga D.S., Chute M.B., Martin A., and Kapel C.M. A multiplex PCR for unequivocal differentiation of all encapsulated and non-encapsulated genotypes of Trichinella. Int. J. Parasitol. 29 (1999) 1859-1867
113. Zarlenga D.S., Rosenthal B.M., La Rosa G., Pozio E., and Hoberg E.P. Post-Miocene expansion, colonization, and host switching drove speciation among extant nematodes of the archaic genus Trichinella. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (2006) 7354-7359
114. Zarlenga D.S., Rosenthal B., Hoberg E., and Mitreva M. Integrating genomics and phylogenetics in understanding the history of Trichinella species. Vet. Parasitol. 159 (2009) 210-213
115. Zimmer I.A., Hunter S.J., Morgan C.P., Hunt K.R., Smith G.C., Howell M., and Taylor M.A. Detection and surveillance for animal trichinellosis in GB. Vet. Parasitol. 151 (2008) 233-241