Brave men and timid women? A review of the gender differences in fear and anxiety

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 496-505

  McLean, Carmen P ^a   Anderson, Emily R ^b  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Gender; Gender socialization

Indexed keywords

STRESS HORMONE;

ANXIETY DISORDER; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; COGNITION; COPING BEHAVIOR; CULTURAL FACTOR; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FEAR; GENETIC RISK; HEREDITY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HORMONAL REGULATION; HUMAN; INJURY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOSOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT; SEX DIFFERENCE; SEX ROLE; SOCIALIZATION; STRESS; TEMPERAMENT; THREAT;

AFFECT; ANXIETY DISORDERS; COGNITION; FEAR; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MALE; SEX FACTORS; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; TEMPERAMENT;

EID: 68049148353     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: 18737811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (170)

1. Anderson J.C., Williams S.M., McGee R., and Silva P.A. DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: Prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry 44 1 (1987) 69-76
2. Angst J., and Dobler-Mikola A. The Zurich Study: V. Anxiety and phobia in young adults. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences 235 3 (1985) 171-178
3. Arcus D., and Kagan J. Temperament and craniofacial variation in the first two years. Child Development 66 5 (1995) 1529-1540
4. Arrindell W.A. Phobic dimensions: IV. The structure of animal fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 5 (2000) 509-530
5. Arrindell W.A., Eisemann M., Richter J., Oei T.P.S., Caballo V.E., Ende J., et al. Masculinity-femininity as a national characteristic and its relationship with national agoraphobic fear levels: Fodor's sex role hypothesis revitalized. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 795-807
6. Arrindell W.A., Mulkens S., and Kok J. Disgust sensitivity and the sex differences in fears to common indigenous animals. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37 3 (1999) 273-280
7. Basow S.A. Cultural variations in sex-typing. Sex Roles 10 (1984) 577-585
8. Bander R.S., and Betz N.E. The relationship of sex and sex role to trait and situationally specific anxiety types. Journal of Research in Personality 15 3 (1981) 312-322
9. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control (1997), Freeman, New York
10. Barlow D.H. Disorders of emotion. Psychological Inquiry 2 1 (1991) 58-71
11. Barlow D.H. Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American Psychologist 55 11 (2000) 1247-1263
12. Barlow D.H. Anxiety & its disorders. 2nd ed. (2001), Guilford, New York
13. Bem S.L. Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review 88 4 (1981) 354-364
14. Bernstein A., Zvolensky M.J., Stewart S.H., Comeau M.N., and Leen-Felder E.W. Anxiety sensitivity taxonicity across gender among youth. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 5 (2006) 679-698
15. Biaggio M.K., and Nielsen E.C. Anxiety correlates of sex-role identity. Journal of Clinical Psychology 32 3 (1976) 619-623
16. Blagden J.C., and Craske M.G. Effects of active and passive rumination and distraction: A pilot replication with anxious mood. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 10 (1996) 243-252
17. Blake D.D., Cook J.D., and Keane T.M. Post-traumatic stress disorder and coping in veterans who are seeking medical treatment. Journal of Clinical Psychology 48 (1992) 695-704
18. Borkovec T., Shadick R., and Hopkins M. The nature of normal and pathological worry. Chronic anxiety: Generalized anxiety disorder and mixed anxiety-depression (1991), Guilford Press, New York, NY US 29-51
19. Bourdon K.H., Boyd J.H., Rae D.S., Burns B.J., Thompson J.W., and Lock B.Z. Gender differences in phobias: Results of the ECA community survey. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2 3 (1988) 227-241
20. Bowen R.C., Offord D.R., and Boyle M.H. The prevalence of overanxious disorder and separation anxiety disorder: Results from the Ontario Child Health Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 29 5 (1990) 753-758
21. Breslau N., and Anthony J.C. Gender differences in the sensitivity to posttraumatic stress disorder: An epidemiological study of urban young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (2007) 607-611
22. Breslau N., Chilcoat H.D., Peterson E.L., and Schultz L.R. Gender differences in major depression: The role of anxiety. In: Frank E. (Ed). Gender and its effects on psychopathology (2000), American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc, Washington, DC, US 131-150
23. Bruce S.E., Yonkers K.A., Otto M.W., Eisen J.L., Weisberg R.B., Pagano M., et al. Influence of psychiatric comorbidity on recovery and recurrence in generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, and panic disorder: A 12-year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry 162 6 (2005) 1179-1187
24. Buchanan T., and Selmon N. Race and gender differences in self-efficacy: Assessing the role of gender role attitudes and family background. Sex Roles 58 11-12 (2008) 822-836
25. Cameron O.G., and Hill E.M. Women and anxiety. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 12 1 (1989) 175-186
26. Campbell M.A., and Rapee R.M. The nature of feared outcome representations in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 22 1 (1994) 99-111
27. Carey M.P., Dusek J.B., and Spector I.P. Sex roles, gender and fears: A brief report. Phobia Practice and Research Journal 1 1 (1988) 114-120
28. Carver C.S., Scheier M.F., and Weintraub J.K. Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989) 267-283
29. Castle D.J., Deale A., and Marks I.M. Gender differences in obsessive compulsive disorder. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 29 1 (1995) 114-117
30. Chambless D.L. Agoraphobia. In: Lindemann C., and Lanham M.D. (Eds). Handbook of phobia therapy: Rapid symptom relief in anxiety disorders (1989), Jason Aronson, Inc, Northvale, NJ
31. Chambless D.L., and Goldstein A.J. Clinical treatment of agoraphobia. In: Mavissakalian M., and Barlow D.H. (Eds). Phobia: Psychological and pharmacological treatment (1981), Guilford, New York 103-144
32. Chambless D.L., and Mason J. Sex, sex-role stereotyping and agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 24 2 (1986) 231-235
33. Chia R.C., Moore I.L., Lam K.N., Chuang C.J., and Cheng B.S. Cultural differences in gender role attitudes between Chinese and American students. Sex Roles 31 (1994) 23-30
34. Chorpita B.F., Albano A.M., and Barlow D.H. Cognitive processing in children: Relation to anxiety and family influences. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 25 (1996) 170-176
35. Chorpita B.F., and Barlow D.H. The development of anxiety: The role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin 124 (1998) 3-21
36. Cohen S., Kamarck T., and Mermelstein R.A. A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 24 (1983) 385-396
37. Connolly K.M., Olatunji B.O., and Lohr J.M. Evidence for disgust sensitivity mediating the sex differences found in blood-injection-injury phobia and spider phobia. Personality and Individual Differences 44 (2008) 898-908
38. Costa Jr. P., Terracciano A., and McCrae R.R. Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 2 (2001) 322-331
39. Costello E.J., Egger H.L., and Angold A. Development epidemiology of anxiety disorders. In: Ollendick T.H., and March J.S. (Eds). Phobic Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents: A Clinician's Guide to Effective Psychosocial and Pharmacological Interventions (2003), Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK 61-91
40. Cox B.J., Swinson R.P., and Shulman I.D. Gender effects and alcohol use in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 4 (1993) 413-416
41. Craig K.D., and Lowery H.J. Heart-rate components of conditioned vicarious autonomic responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 11 4 (1969) 381-387
42. Craske M.G. The origins of phobias and anxiety disorders: Why more women than men (2003), Elsevier Science, Oxford, England
43. Davey G.C.L. Self-reported fears to common indigenous animals in an adult UK population: The role of disgust sensitivity. British Journal of Psychology 85 4 (1994) 541-554
44. Davey G.C.L., and Matchett G. Unconditioned stimulus rehearsal and the retention and enhancement of differential "fear" conditioning: Effects of trait and state anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103 (1994) 708-718
45. Davey G.C.L., McDonald A.S., and Hirisave U. A cross-cultural study of animal fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 7-8 (1998) 735-750
46. Davis M., and Emory E. Sex differences in neonatal stress reactivity. Child Development 66 1 (1995) 14-27
47. Deacon B.J., Abramowitz J.S., Woods C.M., and Tolin D.F. The anxiety sensitivity index - Revised: Psychometric properties and factor structure in two nonclinical samples. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 12 (2003) 1427-1449
48. Dehon C., Weems C.F., Stickle T.R., Costa N.M., and Berman S.L. A cross sectional evaluation of factorial invariance of anxiety sensitivity in adolescents and young adults. Behavior Research and Therapy 43 6 (2005) 799-810
49. Diaz S.F., Grush L.R., Sichel D.A., and Cohen L.S. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in pregnancy and the puerperium. In: Dickstein L.J., Riba M.B., and Oldham J.M. (Eds). American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry vol. 16 (1997), American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, US III-97-III-11216
50. Dick C.L., Bland R.C., and Newman S.C. Panic disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 89 376, Suppl (1994) 45-53
51. Dillon K.M., Wolf E., and Katz H. Sex roles, gender, and fear. Journal of Psychology 119 (1985) 355-359
52. Ehlers A. Somatic symptoms and panic attacks: A retrospective study of learning experiences. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 3 (1993) 269-278
53. Eley T.C. Contributions of behavioral genetics research: Quantifying genetic, shared environmental and nonshared environmental influences. In: Vasey M.D., and Mark R. (Eds). The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (2001), Oxford University Press, New York, NY, US 45-59
54. El-Islam M.F. Cultural aspects of morbid fears in Qatari women. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 29 3 (1994) 137-140
55. Elwood S.W., Ferguson H.B., and Thakar J. Catecholamine response of children in a naturally occurring stressor situation. Journal of Human Stress 12 4 (1986) 154-161
56. Emmelkamp P.M.G., and Felten M. The process of exposure in vivo: cognitive and physiological changes during treatment of acrophobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985) 219-223
57. Endler N.S., Hunt J.M., and Rosenstein A.J. An S-R inventory of anxiousness. Psychological Monographs 76 17, Whole No. 536 (1962) 33
58. Foa E.B., and Riggs D.S. Posttraumatic stress disorder and rape. In: Pynoos R.S. (Ed). Posttraumatic stress disorder: A clinical review (1994), The Sidran Press, Baltimore, MD, US
59. Foot M., and Koszycki D. Gender differences in anxiety-related traits in patients with panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety 20 3 (2004) 123-130
60. Fredrikson M., Annas P., and Fischer H. Gender and age differences in the prevalence of specific fears and phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 1 (1996) 33-39
61. Gall M.D. The relationship between masculinity-femininity and manifest anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychology 25 3 (1969) 294-295
62. Gater R., Tansella M., Korten A., Tiemens B.G., Mavreas V.G., and Olatawura M.O. Sex differences in the prevalence and detection of depressive and anxiety disorders in general health care settings: Report from the World Health Organization collaborative study on psychological problems in general health care. Archives of General Psychiatry 55 5 (1998) 405-413
63. Ginsburg G.S., and Silverman W.K. Gender role orientation and fearfulness in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 14 1 (2000) 57-67
64. Gold S.D., Marx B.P., Soler-Baillo J.M., and Sloan D.M. Is life stress more traumatic than traumatic stress?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 19 6 (2005) 687-698
65. Goldstein R.B., Wickramaratne P.J., Horwath E., and Weissman M.M. Familial aggregation and phenomenology of 'early'-onset (at or before age 20 years) panic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 54 3 (1997) 271-278
66. Goodman S., and Kantor D. Influence of sex-role identity on two indices of social anxiety. Journal of Research in Personality 17 (1983) 443-450
67. Graham L.A., Cohen S.I., and Shmavonian R.M. Sex differences in autonomic responses during instrumental conditioning. Psychosomatic Medicine 28 3 (1966) 264-271
68. Greif E., Alvarez M., and Ulman K. Recognizing emotions in other people: Sex differences in socialization. Poster presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Boston, MA (1981)
69. Gullone E., and King N.J. The fears of youth in the 1990s: Contemporary normative data. Journal of Genetic Psychology 154 (1993) 137-153
70. Hall J.A. On explaining gender differences: The case of nonverbal communication. In: Shaver P., and Hendrick C. (Eds). Sex and gender (1987), Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA, US
71. Hedlund M.A., and Chambless D.L. Sex differences and menstrual cycle effects in aversive conditioning: A comparison of premenstrual and intermenstrual women with men. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 4 3 (1990) 221-231
72. Hertzberg T., and Wahlbeck K. The impact of pregnancy and puerperium on panic disorder: A review. Journal of Psychosomatice Obstetrics and Gynecology 20 (1999) 59-64
73. Hettema J.M., Prescott C.A., Myers J.M., Neale M.C., and Kendler K.S. The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for anxiety disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry 62 2 (2005) 182-189
74. Himle J.A., McPhee K., Cameron O.G., and Curtis G.C. Simple phobia: Evidence for heterogeneity. Psychiatry Research 28 1 (1989) 25-30
75. Hollifield M., Katon W., Skipper B., Chapman T., Ballenger J.C., Mannuzza S., et al. Panic disorder and quality of life: Variables predictive of functional impairment. American Journal of Psychiatry 154 6 (1997) 766-772
76. Kajantie E., and Phillips D.I. The effects of sex and hormonal status on the physiological response to acute psychosocial stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31 (2006) 151-178
77. Karno M., and Golding J.M. Obsessive compulsive disorder. In: Robins L.N., and Regier D.A. (Eds). Psychiatric disorders in America (1991), Free Press, New York 204-219
78. Karno M., Golding J.M., Sorenson S.B., and Burman M.A. The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in five US communities. Archives of General Psychiatry 45 12 (1988) 1094-1099
79. Katkin E.S., and Hoffman L.S. Sex differences and self-report of fear: A psychophysiological assessment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 85 6 (1976) 607-610
80. Katzelnick D.J., and Greist J.H. Social anxiety disorder: An unrecognized problem in primary care. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 62 Suppl1 (2001) 11-16
81. Kelly M.M., Forsyth J.P., and Karekla M. Sex differences in response to a panicogenic biological challenge procedure: An experimental evaluation of panic vulnerability in a non-clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006) 1421-1430
82. Kelly M.M., Tyrka A.R., Anderson G.M., Price L.H., and Carpenter L.L. Sex differences in emotional and physiological responses to the Trier Social Stress Test. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 39 1 (2008) 87-98
83. Kendler K.S., Neale M.C., Kessler R.C., Heath A.C., and Eaves L.J. The genetic epidemiology of phobias in women: The interrelationship of agoraphobia, social phobia, situational phobia, and simple phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry 49 4 (1992) 273-281
84. Kessler R.C., McGonagle K.A., Zhao S., Nelson C., Hughes M., Eshelman S., et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry 51 1 (1994) 8-19
85. Kessler R.C., and McLeod J.D. Sex differences in vulnerability to undesirable life events. American Sociological Review 49 5 (1984) 620-631
86. Kessler R.C., Sonnega A., Bromet E., Hughes M., and Nelson C.B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 52 12 (1995) 1048-1060
87. Kirschbaum C., Kudielka B.M., Gaab J., Schommer N.C., and Hellhammer D.H. Impact of gender, menstrual cycle phase, and oral contraceptives on the activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Psychosomatic Medicine 61 (1999) 154-162
88. Kirschbaum C., Wust S., and Hellhammer D. Consistent sex differences in cortisol responses to psychological stress. Psychosomatic Medicine 54 (1992) 648-657
89. Kirmayer L.J., Young A., and Hayton B.C. The cultural context of anxiety disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 18 3 (1995) 503-521
90. Klorman R. Psychometric description of some specific-fear questionnaires. Behavior Therapy 5 3 (1974) 401-409
91. Koss M.P., Gidycz C.A., and Wisniewski N. The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 55 2 (1987) 162-170
92. Krohne H.W., and Hock M. Relationships between restrictive mother-child interactions and anxiety of the child. Anxiety Research 4 2 (1991) 109-124
93. Lake R.I.E., Eaves L.J., Maes H.H.M., Heath A.C., and Martin N.G. Further evidence against the environmental transmission of individual differences in neuroticism from a collaborative study of 45,850 twins and relatives on two continents. Behavior Genetics 30 3 (2000) 223-233
94. Lewinsohn P.M., Gotlib I.H., Lewinsohn M., Seeley J.R., and Allen N.B. Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998) 109-117
95. Líndal E., and Stefánsson J.G. The lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorders in Iceland as estimated by the US National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 88 1 (1993) 29-34
96. Lonigan C.J., and Phillips B.M. Temperamental basis of anxiety disorders in children. In: Vasey M.W., and Dadds M.R. (Eds). The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (2001), Oxford University Press, New York 60-91
97. Lynn R., and Martin T. Gender differences in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism in 37 nations. Journal of Social Psychology 137 3 (1997) 369-373
98. Maltzman I. Habituation of the GSR and digital vasomotor components of the orienting reflex as a consequence of task instructions and sex differences. Physiological Psychology 7 2 (1979, June) 213-220
99. Martin C.L., Ruble D.N., and Szkrybalo J. Cognitive theories of early gender development. Psychological Bulletin 128 6 (2002) 903-933
100. McClure E.B., Monk C.S., Nelson E.E., Zarahn E., Leibenluft E., Bilder R.M., et al. A developmental examination of gender differences in brain engagement during evaluation of threat. Biological Psychiatry 55 11 (2004) 1047-1055
101. McCrae R.R., Costa Jr. P.T., and Terracciano A. Personality trait development from age 12 to age 18: Longitudinal, cross-sectional and cross-cultural analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 6 (2002) 1456-1468
102. McGee R., Feehan M., Williams S., Partrige F., Silva P.A., and Kelly J. DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 29 4 (1990) 611-619
103. McHugh, M.C., Frieze, I.H., & Browne, A. (1993). Research on battered women and their assailants. In F. L. Denmark & M. A. Paludi (Eds.), Psychology of women: A handbook of issues and theories. CT Westport US: Greenwood Press/Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
104. McLeod D.R., Hoehn-Saric R., Foster G.V., and Hipsley P.A. The influence of premenstrual syndrome on ratings of anxiety in women with generalized anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 88 (1993) 248-251
105. McNally R.J. Panic disorder: A critical analysis (1993), Guilford Press, New York, NY, US
106. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. The etiology of phobias: A non-associative account. Clinical Psychology Review 15 (1995) 23-48
107. Mowrer O.H. Learning theory and behavior (1960), Wiley, New York
108. Moscovitch D.A., Hofmann S.G., and Litz B.T. The impact of self-construals on social anxiety: A gender-specific interaction. Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005) 659-672
109. Muris P., and Merckelbach H. The etiology of childhood specific phobias: A multifactorial model. In: Vasey M.W., and Dadds M. (Eds). The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (2001), New York, Oxford University Press
110. Muris P., Meesters C., and Knoops M. The relation between gender role orientation and fear and anxiety in nonclinic-referred children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 34 (2005) 326-332
111. Muris P., and Ollendick T.H. The assessment of contemporary fears in adolescents using a modified version of the Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 16 6 (2002) 567-584
112. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Sex Differences in Depression (1990), Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA
113. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 4 (1991) 569-582
114. Nolen-Hoeksema S., and Jackson B. Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychology of Women Quarterly 25 1 (2001) 37-47
115. Norton P.J., Sexton K.A., Walker J.R., and Norton R.G. Hierarchical model of vulnerabilities for anxiety: Replication and extension with a clinical sample. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 34 1 (2005) 50-63
116. Ochoa L., Beck A.T., and Steer R.A. Gender differences in comorbid anxiety and mood disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 149 10 (1992) 1409-1410
117. Olatunji B.O., Arrindell W.A., and Lohr J.M. Can the sex differences in disgust sensitivity account for the sex differences in blood-injection-injury fears?. Personality and Individual Differences 39 1 (2005) 61-71
118. Ollendick T.H. Reliability and validity of the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children (FSSC-R). Behaviour Research and Therapy 21 6 (1983) 685-692
119. Ollendick T.H., King N.J., and Muris P. Fears and phobias in children: Phenomenology, epidemiology, and aetiology. Child & Adolescent Mental Health 7 (2002) 98-106
120. Pearlstein T.B., Frank E., Rivera-Tovar A., Thoft J.S., Jacobs E., and Mieczkowski T.A. Prevalence of Axis I and Axis II disorders in women with late luteal phase dysphoric disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 20 2 (1990) 129-134
121. Perna G., Caldirola D., Arancio C., and Bellodi L. Panic attacks: A twin study. Psychiatry Research 66 1 (1997) 69-71
122. 2 in patients with panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 153 8 (1996) 1060-1064
123. Phillips N., Dennerstein L., and Farish S. Psychological morbidity in obstetric-gynaecology patients: testing the need for expanded psychiatry services in obstetric gynaecology facilities. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 30 (1996) 74-81
124. Pigott T.A. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Symptom overview and epidemiology. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 62 4, Suppl A (1998) A4-A32
125. Pigott T.A. Gender differences in the epidemiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 60 Suppl 18 (1999) 4-15
126. Pomerantz E.M., and Ruble D.N. The role of maternal gender socialization in the development of sex differences in child self-evaluative mechanisms. Child Development 68 (1998) 558-478
127. Poulton R., Milne B.J., Craske M.G., and Menzies R.G. A longitudinal study of the etiology of separation anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 12 (2001) 1395-1410
128. Rasmussen S.A., and Eisen J.L. Epidemiology of obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 51 2, Suppl (1990) 10-13
129. Rauste-von Wright M., von Wright J., and Frankenhaueser M. Relationships between sex-related psychological characteristics during adolescence and catecholamine excretion during achievement stress. Psychophysiology 18 4 (1981) 362-370
130. Reiss S., and McNally R.J. The expectancy model of fear. In: Reiss S., and Bootzin R.R. (Eds). Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (1985), Academic Press, New York 107-121
131. Robichaud M., Dugas M.J., and Conway M. Gender differences in worry and associated cognitive-behavioral variables. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 17 (2003) 501-516
132. Rohrmann S., Netter P., Hennig J., and Hodapp W. Repression-sensitization, gender, and discrepancies in psychobiological reactions to examination stress. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal 16 3 (2003) 321-329
133. Ross C.E., and Mirowsky J. Age and the gender gap in the sense of personal control. Social Psychology Quarterly 65 2 (2002) 125-145
134. Ross L.E., and McLean L.M. Anxiety disorders during pregnancy and the postpartum period: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67 8 (2006) 1285-1298
135. Scheibe G., and Albus M. Age at onset, precipitating events, sex distribution, and co-occurrence of anxiety disorders. Psychopathology 25 1 (1992) 11-18
136. Schmidt N.B., and Koselka M. Gender differences in patients with panic disorder: Evaluating cognitive mediation of phobic avoidance. Cognitive Therapy and Research 24 5 (2000) 533-550
137. Sheikh J.I., Leskin G.A., and Klein D.F. Gender differences in panic disorder: Findings from the National Comorbidity survey. American Journal of Psychiatry 159 1 (2002) 55-58
138. Silverman W.K., La Greca A.M., and Wasserstein S. What do children worry about? Worries and their relationship to anxiety. Child Development 66 (1995) 671-686
139. Skre I., Onstad S., Torgersen S., Lygren S., and Kringlen E. A twin study of DSM-III-R anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 88 2 (1993) 85-92
140. Spielberger C.D. Theory and research on anxiety. In: Spielberger C.D. (Ed). Anxiety and behavior (1966), Academic Press, New York 3-19
141. Spielberger C.D. Conceptual and methodological issues in anxiety research. In: Spielberger C.D. (Ed). Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (1972), Academic Press, New York 481-492
142. Spielberger C.D., Gorsuch R.L., and Lushene R.D. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (1970), Consulting Psychologists Press, Palo Alto, CA
143. Stein M., Jang K., and Livesley W. Heritability of social anxiety-related concerns and personality characteristics: A twin study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 190 4 (2002) 219-224
144. Steiner H., Ryst E., Berkowitz J., Gschwendt M.A., and Koopman C. Boys' and girls' responses to stress: Affect and heart rate during a speech task. Journal of Adolescent Health 30 Suppl (2002) 14-21
145. Stevenson-Hinde J., and Shouldice A. Wariness to strangers: A behavior systems perspective revisited. In: Rubin K.H., and Asendorpf J.B. (Eds). Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (1993), Lawrence Erlbaum, New York 101-116
146. Stewart S.H., Taylor S., and Baker J.M. Gender differences in dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 11 (1997) 179-200
147. Ströhle A. Increased response to a putative panicogenic nocebo administration in female patients with panic disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 34 6 (2000) 439-442
148. Stoney C.M., Davis M.C., and Matthews K.A. Sex differences in physiological responses to stress and in coronary heart disease: A causal link?. Psychophysiology 24 2 (1987) 127-131
149. Suarez L., and Bell-Dolan D. The relationship of child worry to cognitive biases: Threat interpretation and likelihood of event occurrence. Behavior Therapy 32 3 (2001) 425-442
150. Taylor S. The hierarchic structure of fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 2 (1998) 205-214
151. Taylor S.E., Klein L.C., Lewis B.P., Gruenewald T.L., Gurung R.A.R., and Updegraff J.A. Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review 107 3 (2000) 411-429
152. Telch M.J., Lucas J.A., and Nelson P. Nonclinical panic in college students: An investigation of prevalence and symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 98 3 (1989) 300-306
153. Thoits P.A. Gender and marital status differences in control and distress: Common stress versus unique stress explanations. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 28 (1987) 7-22
154. Thorpe S.J., and Salkovskis P.M. Phobic beliefs: Do cognitive factors play a role in specific phobias?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 805-816
155. Todman J., and Day K. Computer anxiety: The role of psychological gender. Computers in Human Behavior 22 5 (2006) 856-869
156. Tolin D.F., and Foa E.B. Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research. Psychological Bulletin 132 (2006) 959-992
157. True W.R., Rice J., Eisen S.A., Goldberg J., Lyons M.J., and Nowack J.A. A twin study of genetic and environmental contributions to liability for posttraumatic stress symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry 50 4 (1993) 257-264
158. Tucker M., and Bond N.W. The roles of gender, sex role, and disgust in fear of animals. Personality and Individual Differences 22 1 (1997) 135-138
159. Turgeon L., Marchand A., and Dupuis G. Clinical features in panic disorder with agoraphobia: A comparison of men and women. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12 6 (1998) 539-553
160. Watt M.C., Stewart S.H., and Cox B.J. A retrospective study of the learning origins of anxiety sensitivity. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 (1998) 05-525
161. Weinberg M.K., Tronick E.Z., Cohn J.F., and Olson K.L. Gender differences in emotional expressivity and self-regulation during early infancy. Developmental Psychology 35 1 (1999) 175-188
162. Weissman M.M., and Merikangas K.R. The epidemiology of anxiety and panic disorders: An update. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 47 Suppl (1986) 11-17
163. Wheaton M., Timpano K.R., LaSalle-Ricci V.H., and Murphy D. Characterizing the hoarding phenotype in individuals with OCD: Associations with comorbidity, severity and gender. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 22 (2008) 243-252
164. Williams K.E., and Koran L.M. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in pregnancy, the puerperium, and the premenstruum. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58 (1997) 330-334
165. Wood W., and Eagly A.H. A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex difference. Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002) 699-727
166. Wolpe J., and Lang P.J. Manual for the Fear Survey Schedule (1977), Educational and Industrial Testing Service, San Diego, CA
167. Yonkers K.A., Zlotnick C., Allsworth J., Warshaw M., Shea T., and Keller M.B. Is the course of panic disorder the same in women and men?. American Journal of Psychiatry 155 5 (1998) 596-602
168. Zinbarg R.E., and Barlow D.H. Structure of anxiety and the anxiety disorders: A hierarchical model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105 2 (1996) 181-193
169. Zinbarg R.E., Barlow D.H., and Brown T.A. Hierarchical structure and general factor structure saturation of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index: Evidence and implications. Psychological Assessment 9 (1997) 277-284
170. Zvolensky M.J., McNeil D.W., Porter C.A., and Stewart S.H. Assessment of anxiety sensitivity in young American Indians and Alaska Natives. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001) 477-493