The Development of Anxiety: The Role of Control in the Early Environment

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 124, Issue 1, 1998, Pages 3-21

  Chorpita, Bruce F ^a   Barlow, David H ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAWAII   (United States)

^b University of Hawaii ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANXIETY; CHILD; CONTROL; DEPRESSION; EGO DEVELOPMENT; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFANT; LEARNED HELPLESSNESS; MALE; OBJECT RELATION; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ANXIETY; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HELPLESSNESS, LEARNED; HUMANS; INFANT; INTERNAL-EXTERNAL CONTROL; MALE; OBJECT ATTACHMENT; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT;

EID: 0032109398     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.3     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness and depression: A theory based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-392.
2. Abramson, L. Y., & Sackeim, H. A. (1977). A paradox in depression: Uncontrollability and self-blame. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 838-851.
3. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.
4. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
5. Alloy, L. B., Kelly, K. A., Mineka, S., & Clements, C. M. (1990). Comorbidity of anxiety and depressive disorders: A helplessness-hopelessness perspective. In J. D. Maser & C. R. Cloninger (Eds.), Comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders (pp. 499-543). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
6. American Psychiatric Association, (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., revised). Washington, DC: Author.
7. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
8. Angst, J., Vollrath, M., Merikangas, K. R., & Ernst, C. (1990). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in the Zurich Cohort Study of Young Adults. In J. D. Maser & C. R. Cloninger (Eds.), Comorbidiry of mood and anxiety disorders (pp. 123-137). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
9. Anisman, H., & LaPierre, Y. (1982). Neurochemical aspects of stress and depression: Formulations and caveats. In R. W. Neufeld (Ed.), Psychological stress and psychopathology (pp. 179-217). New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
11. Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. New York: Guilford.
12. Barlow, D. H. (1991). Disorders of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 2, 58-71.
13. Barlow, D. H., Chorpita, B. F., & Turovsky, J. (1996). Fear, panic, anxiety, and the disorders of emotion. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Perspectives on anxiety, panic, and fear (Vol. 43, pp. 251-328). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
14. Bates, J. E., & Bayles, K. (1988). The role of attachment in the development of behavior problems. In J. Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of early attachment (pp. 253-259). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
15. Beck, A. T., & Emery, G. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias: A cognitive perspective. New York: Basic.
16. Biglan, A. (1987). A behavior-analytic critique of Bandura's self-efficacy theory. The Behavior Analyst, 10, 1-15.
17. Biocca, L. J. (1985). The relationship among locus of control, perceived parenting, and sex-role attributes in adolescence. Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 2193B.
18. Borkovec, T. D. (1994). The nature, functions, and origins of worry. In G. Davey & F. Tallis (Eds.), Worrying: Perspectives on theory, assessment, and treatment (pp. 5-35). Sussex. England: Wiley & Sons.
19. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1): Attachment. New York: Basic.
20. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss (Vol. 2): Separation. New York: Basic.
21. Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss (Vol. 3): Loss, sadness, and depression. New York: Basic.
22. Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28, 759-775.
23. Brooks, V. B. (1986). How does the limbic system assist motor learning? A limbic comparator hypothesis. Brain, Behavior, and Evolution, 29, 29-53.
24. Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect, and autonomic arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, 179-192.
25. Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., Korotitsch, W., & Barlow, D. H. (1997). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) in clinical samples. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 79-89.
26. Bryant, B. K., & Trockel, J. F. (1976). Personal history of control of psychological stress related to locus of control orientation among college women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 44, 266-271.
27. Burhans, K. K., & Dweck, C. S. (1995). Helplessness in early childhood: The role of contingent worth. Child Development, 66, 1719-1738.
28. Campbell, S. B. (1989). Developmental perspectives. In T. H. Ollendick & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of child psychopathology (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum.
29. Carroll, B. J. (1985). Dexamethasone suppression test: A review of contemporary confusion. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 46, 13-24.
30. Carton, J. S., & Nowicki, S. (1994). Antecedents of individual differences in locus of control of reinforcement: A critical review. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 120, 31-81.
31. Chandler, T. A., Wolf, F. M., Cook, B., & Dugovics, D. A. (1980). Parental correlates of locus of control in fifth graders: An attempt at experimentation in the home. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 26, 183-195.
32. Chorpita, B. F. (in press). Vulnerability for anxiety and depression: Structure and development. In K. D. Craig, R. J. McMahon, & K. S. Dobson (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Banff International Conference on Behavioral Science. New York: Sage.
33. Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The structure of negative emotions in a clinical sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 74-85.
34. Chorpita, B. F., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (in press). Perceived control as a mediator of family environment in etiological models of childhood anxiety. Behavior Therapy.
35. Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316-336.
36. Cole, D. A., & Turner, J. E. (1993). Models of cognitive mediation and moderation in child depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 271-281.
37. Crandall, V. C., Katkovsky, W., & Crandall, V. J. (1965). Children's belief in their own control of reinforcements in intellectual-academic achievement situations. Child Development, 36, 91-109.
38. Davis, W. L., & Phares, E. J. (1969). Parental antecedents of internal-external control of reinforcement. Psychological Reports, 24, 427-436.
39. Denenberg, V. H. (1967). Stimulation in infancy, emotional reactivity, and exploratory behavior. In D. C. Glass (Ed.), Neurophysiology and emotion (pp. 161-190). New York: Rockefeller University Press.
40. Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84-100.
41. Diethelm, K. (1991). Mutter-Kind-Interaktion. Entwicklung von ersten Kontrollüberzeugungen [Mother-child interaction. Development of early control beliefs]. Bern, Switzerland: Huber.
42. Di Nardo, P. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1990). Syndrome and symptom co-occurrence in the anxiety disorders. In J. D. Maser & C. R. Cloninger (Eds.), Comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders (pp. 205-230). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
43. Dobson, K. S. (1985). The relationship between anxiety and depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 5, 307-324.
44. Drugan, R. C., Ryan, S. M., Minor, T. R., & Maier, S. F. (1984). Librium prevents the analgesia and shuttlebox escape deficit typically observed following inescapable shock. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 21, 749-754.
45. Dumas, J. E., LaFreniere, P. J., & Serketich, W. J. (1995). "Balance of power": A transactional analysis of control in mother-child dyads involving socially competent, aggressive, and anxious children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 104-113.
46. Dweck, C. S. (1991). Self-theories and goals: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. In R. Dienstbier (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation and Emotion (Vol. 36, pp. 199-235). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
47. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
48. Eastman, C., & Marzillier, J. S. (1984). Theoretical and methodological difficulties in Bandura's self-efficacy theory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 213-229.
49. Ehiobuche, I. (1988). Obsessive-compulsive neurosis in relation to parental child rearing patterns amongst Greek, Italian, and Anglo-Australian subjects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 78, 115-120.
50. Elder, G. H. (1974). The children of the Great Depression: Social change in life experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
51. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1964). Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory. London: University of London Press.
52. Finch, A. J., & Nelson, W. M. (1974). Locus of control and anxiety in emotionally disturbed children. Psychological Reports, 35, 469-470.
53. Fincham, F. D., & Cain, K. M. (1986). Learned helplessness in humans: A developmental analysis. Developmental Review, 6, 301-333.
54. Fonagy, P., Leigh, T., Steele, M., Steele, H., Kennedy, R., Mattoon, G., Target, M., & Gerber, A. (1996). The relation of attachment status, psychiatric classification, and response to psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 22-31.
55. Forsman, L. (1981). Habitual catecholamine excretion and its relation to habitual distress. Biological Psychiatry, 11, 83-97.
56. Fowles, D. C. (1995). A motivational theory of psychopathology. In W. Spaulding (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Integrated views of motivation, cognition, and emotion (Vol. 41, pp. 181-238). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
57. Garmezy, N. (1986). Developmental aspects of children's responses to the stress of separation and loss. In M. Rutter, C. E. Izard, & P. B. Reid (Eds.), Depression in young people: Developmental and clinical perspectives. New York: Guilford.
58. Garmezy, N., & Rutter, M. (1983). Stress, coping, and development in children. New York: McGraw-Hill.
59. Gerlsma, C., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., & Arrindell, W. A. (1990). Anxiety, depression, and perception of early parenting: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 251-277.
60. Gordon, D. A., Nowicki, S., & Wiehern, F. (1981). Observed maternal and child behaviors in a dependency-producing task as a function of children's locus of control orientation. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 27, 43-51.
61. Gotlib, I. H., Mount, J. H., Cordie, N. L. & Whiffen, V. E. (1988). Depression and perception of early parenting: A longitudinal investigation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 24-27.
62. Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.
63. Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
64. Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (1996). The neuropsychology of anxiety: A reprise. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Perspectives on anxiety, panic, and fear (Vol. 43, pp. 61-134). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
65. Gunnar, M. R. (1980). Control, warning signals, and distress in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 16, 281-289.
66. Gunnar, M. R. (1994). Psychoendocrine studies of temperament and stress in early childhood: Expanding current models. In J. E. Bates & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 175-198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
67. Gunnar, M., Larson, M., Hertsgaard, L., Harris, M., & Broderson, L. (1992). The stressfulness of separation among 9-month-old infants: Effects of social context variables and infant temperament. Child Development, 63, 290-303.
68. Hammen, C., Adrian, C., & Hiroto, D. (1988). A longitudinal test of the attributional vulnerability model in children at risk for depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 37-46.
69. Hannum, R. D., Rosellini, R. A., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned helplessness in the rat: Retention and immunization. Developmental Psychology, 12, 449-454.
70. Hayes, S. C., & Maley, R. F. (1977). Coercion: Legal and behavioral issues. Behaviorism, 5, 87-95.
71. Hetherington, E. M. (1989). Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors. Child Development, 60, 1-14.
72. Hirshfeld, D. R., Rosenbaum, J. F., Biederman, J., Bolduc, E. A., Faraone, S. V., Snidman, N., Reznick, J. S., & Kagan, J. (1992). Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 103-111.
73. Hoehn-Saric, R., & McLeod, D. R. (1985). Locus of control in chronic anxiety disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 72, 529-535.
74. Hoffman, J. A., & Teyber, E. C., (1979). Some relationships between sibling age, space, and personality. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 25, 77-80.
75. Izard, C. E., & Beuchler, S. (1979). Emotion expressions and personality integration in infancy. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality andpsychopathology (pp. 447-472). New York: Plenum Press.
76. Joiner, T. E., Jr., Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety, in child psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 401-409.
77. Joyce, P. R. (1984). Parental bonding in bipolar affective disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 7, 319-324.
78. Kagan, J. (1989). Temperamental contributions to social behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 668-674.
79. Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition. Child Development, 58, 1459-1473.
80. Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1978). The KASTAN: A children 's attributional style questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript. University of Pennsylvania.
81. Klockars, A. J., & Varnum, S. W. (1975). A test of the dimensionality assumptions of Rotter's Internal-External scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 39, 397-404.
82. Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in preschool children. Acta Paedopsychiatry, 46, 305-315.
83. Krampen, G. (1982). Schulische und familiäre Entwicklungsbedingungen von Kontrollüberzeugungen [School and familial conditions for developing control beliefs]. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psychologie und ihre Andwendugen, 41, 16-35.
84. Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Behaviour reversal vs. non-directive therapy vs. advice in effecting behaviour change. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 4, 209-212.
85. Lazarus, R. S. (1968). Emotions and adaptation: Conceptual and empirical relations. In W. J. Arnold (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 16). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
86. Lazarus, R. S., Averill, J. R., & Opton, E. M., Jr. (1970). Towards a cognitive theory of emotion. In M. Arnold (Ed.), Feelings and emotion (pp. 207-229). New York: Academic Press.
87. Lee, C. (1989). Theoretical weaknesses and practical problems: The example of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 20, 115-123.
88. Levine, S. (1960). Stimulation in infancy. Scientific American, 202, 80-86.
89. Lewis, M. (1990). Challenges to the study of developmental psychopathology. In M. Lewis & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 29-40). New York: Plenum.
90. Lewis, M., Feirig, C., McGuffog, C., & Jaskir, J. (1984). Predicting psychopathology in six-year-olds from early social relations. Child Development, 55, 123-136.
91. Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behavior Research and Therapy, 33, 335-342.
92. Maier, S. F. (1970). Failure to escape traumatic shock: Incompatible skeletal motor response or learned helplessness? Learning and Motivation, 1, 157-170.
93. Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1976). Learned helplessness: Theory and evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 105, 3-46.
94. Maier, S. F., & Testa, T. J. (1975). Failure to learn escape by rats previously exposed to inescapable shock is partly produced by associative interference. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 88, 554-564.
95. Main, M. (1996). Introduction to the special section on attachment and psychopathology: 2. Overview of the field of attachment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 237-243.
96. Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In M. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti, & E. M. Cummings (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 121-160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
97. Mandler, G. (1972). Helplessness: Theory and research in anxiety. In C. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 359-374). New York: Academic.
98. Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1991). Resilience and development: Contributions from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425-444.
99. McCauley, E., Mitchell, J. R., Burke, P., & Moss, S. (1988). Cognitive attributes of depression in children and adolescents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 903-908.
100. McNally, R. J. (1996). Cognitive bias in the anxiety disorders. In D. A. Hope (Ed.), Perspectives on anxiety, panic, and fear: Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 43, pp. 211-250). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
101. Messer, S. C., & Beidel, D. C. (1994). Psychosocial correlates of childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 975-983.
102. Miller, N. E. (1980). A perspective on the effects of stress and coping on disease and health. In S. Levine & H. Ursin (Eds.), Coping and health (pp. 323-354). New York: Plenum Press.
103. Mineka, S. (1985). Animal models of anxiety-based disorders: Their usefulness and limitations. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 199-244). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
104. Mineka, S., Gunnar, M., & Champoux, M. (1986). Control and early socioemotional development: Infant rhesus monkeys reared in controllable versus uncontrollable environments. Child Development, 57, 1241-1256.
105. Mineka, S., & Zinbarg, R. (1996). Conditioning and ethological models of anxiety disorders. In D. A. Hope (Ed.). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Perspectives on anxiety, panic, and fear (Vol. 43, pp. 135-210). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
106. Minor, T. R., Dess, N. K., & Overmier, J. B. (1991). Inverting the traditional view of "learned helplessness." In M. R. Denny (Ed.), Fear, avoidance and phobias (pp. 87-133). Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum.
107. Mowrer, O. H., & Viek, P. (1948). An experimental analogue of fear from a sense of helplessness. Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 83, 193-200.
108. Nachmias, M., Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Parritz, R. H., & Buss, K. (1996). Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: The moderating role of attachment security. Child Development, 67, 508-522.
109. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1986). Learned helplessness in children: A longitudinal study of depression, achievement, and attributional style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 435-442.
110. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 405-422.
111. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wolfson, A., Mumme, D., & Guskin, K. (1995). Helplessness in children of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Developmental Psychology, 31, 377-387.
112. Nowicki, S., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 148-154.
113. Nunn, G. D. (1988). Concurrent validity between the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 435-438.
114. O'Hanlon, J. F., & Beatty, J. (1976). Catecholamine correlates of radar monitoring performance. Biological Psychology, 4, 293-304.
115. Overmier, J. B. (1988). Psychological determinants of when stressors stress. In D. Hellhammer, I. Florin, & H. Weiner (Eds.), Neurobiological approaches to human disease (pp. 236-259). Toronto: Hans Huber.
116. Overmier, J. B., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1967). Effects of inescapable shock upon subsequent escape and avoidance behavior. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 63, 23-33.
117. Parker, G. (1979a). Parental characteristics in relation to depressive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 138-147.
118. Parker, G. (1979b). Parental deprivation and depression in a non-clinical group. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 13, 51-56.
119. Parker, G. (1979c). Reported parental characteristics in relation to trait depression and anxiety levels in a non-clinical group. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 13, 260-264.
120. Parker, G. (1979d). Reported parental characteristics of agoraphobics and social phobies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 555-560.
121. Parker, G. (1981). Parental representation of patients with anxiety neurosis. Acta Psychiatrics Scandinavica, 63, 33-36.
122. Parker, G. (1983). Parental overprotection: A risk factor in psychosocial development. New York: Grune and Stratton.
123. Parker, G., Tupling, H., & Brown, L. B. (1979). A parental bonding instrument. British Journal of Psychiatry, 52, 1-11.
124. Perris, C., Jacobsson, L., Lindstrom, H., von Knorring, L., & Perris, H. (1980). Development of a new inventory for assessing memories of parental rearing behavior. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 61, 265-274.
125. Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1993). Learned helplessness: A theory for the age of personal control. New York: Oxford University Press.
126. Plantes, M. M., Prusoff, B. A., Brennan. J., & Parker, G. (1988). Parental representations of depressed outpatients from a USA sample. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15, 149-155.
127. Puig-Antich, J., & Chambers, W. (1978). The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (Kiddie-SADS). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.
128. Raab, A., & Oswald, R. (1980). Coping with social conflict: Impact on the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase in the limbic system and in the adrenals. Physiology and Behavior, 24, 387-394.
129. Rachman, S. J. (1979). The concept of required helpfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17, 1-6.
130. Radke-Yarrow, M., Cummings, E. M., & Kuczynski, L. (1985). Patterns of attachment in two- and three-year-olds in normal families and families with parental depression. Child Development, 56, 884-893.
131. Rapee, R. M., Craske, M. G., Brown, T. A., & Barlow, D. H. (1996). Measurement of perceived control over anxiety related events. Behavior Therapy, 27, 279-293.
132. Ray, J. C., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1992). Styles of male social behavior and their endocrine correlates among high-ranking wild baboons. American Journal of Primatology, 28, 231-250.
133. Reiss, D., Hetherington, E. M., Plomin, R., Howe, G. W., Simmens, S. J., Henderson, S. H., O'Connor, T. J., Bussell, D. A., Anderson, E. R., & Law, T. (1995). Genetic questions for environmental studies: Differential parenting and psychopathology in adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 925-936.
134. Rholes, W. S., Blackwell, J., Jordan, C., & Walters, C. (1980). A developmental study of learned helplessness. Developmental Psychology, 16, 616-624.
135. Robins, C. J., & Hinkley. K. (1989). Social-cognitive processing and depressive symptoms in children: A comparison of measures. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 29-36.
136. Rose, R., Bernstein, I., Gordon, T., & Catlin, S. (1974). Androgen and aggression: A review and recent findings in primates. In R. Holloway (Ed.), Primate aggression, territoriality, and xenophobia (pp. 271-293). New York: Academic Press.
137. Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
138. Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 (No. 609).
139. Rutter, M. (1980). Attachment and the development of social relationships. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Scientific foundation of developmental psychiatry. London: Heinemann.
140. Sanderson, W. C., Rapee, R. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1989). The influence of an illusion of control on panic attacks induced via the inhalation of 5.5% carbon dioxide enriched air. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 157-164.
141. Sapolsky, R. M. (1989). Hypercortisolism among socially subordinate wild baboons originates at the CNS level. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1047-1051.
142. Sapolsky, R. M., & Ray, J. C. (1989). Styles of dominance and their endocrine correlates among wild olive baboons (papio anubis). American Journal of Primatology, 18, 1-13.
143. Schneewind, K. A. (1995). Impact of family processes on control beliefs. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 114-148). New York: Cambridge University Press.
144. Schneewind, K. A., & Pfeiffer, P. (1978). Elteriches Erziehungsverhalten und kindliche Selbsverstandwortlichkeit [Parenting and children's self-responsibility]. In K. A. Schneewind & H. Lukesch (Eds.), Familiäre Sozialisation [Family Socialization] (pp. 190-205). Stuttgart, Germany: Klett-Cotta.
145. Schweizer, E. E., Swenson, C. M., Winokur, A., Rickels, K., & Maislin, G. (1986). The dexamethasone suppression test in generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 149, 320-322.
146. Seligman, M. E. P., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 74, 1-9.
147. Seligman, M. E. P., Peterson, C., Kaslow, N. J., Tanenbaum, R. L., Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1984). Attributional style and depressive symptoms among children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 235-238.
148. Seligman, M. E. P., Rosellini, R. A., & Kozak, M. (1975). Learned helplessness in the rat: Reversibility, time course, and immunization. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 88, 542-547.
149. Shelton, M. R., & Garber, J. (1987, August). Development and validation of a children 's pleasant and unpleasant events schedule. Paper presented at the 95th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York.
150. Silove, D., Parker, G., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Manicavasagar, V., & Blaszczynski, A. (1991). Parental representations of patients with panic disorder and generalised anxiety disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 835-841.
151. Skinner, E. A. (1986). The origins of young children's perceived control: Mother contingent and sensitive behavior. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9, 359-382.
152. Skinner, E. A., Chapman, M., & Baltes, P. B. (1988). Control, means-ends and agency beliefs: A new conceptualization and its measurement during childhood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 117-133.
153. Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development. American Psychologist, 34, 134-141.
154. Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Infant-caregiver attachment and patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of maladaptation and competence. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Minnesota symposium on child psychology (Vol. 16, pp. 41-83). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
155. Sroufe, L. A. (1990). Considering the normal and abnormal together: The essence of developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 335-347.
156. Stroebel, C. F. (1969). Biologic rhythm correlates of disturbed behavior in the rhesus monkey. Bibliotheca Primatologica, 9, 91-105.
157. Thompson, R. A. (1998). Early sociopersonality development. In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 25-104). New York: Wiley.
158. Turner, J. E., & Cole, D. A. (1994). Developmental differences in cognitive diatheses for child depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 15-32.
159. Turner, S. M., Beidel, D. C., & Costello, A. (1987). Psychopathology in the offspring of anxiety disorders patients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 229-235.
160. Urban, J., Carlson, E., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (1992). Patterns of individual adaptation across childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 445-460.
161. van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1996). Attachment representations in mothers, fathers, adolescents, and clinical group: A meta-analytic search for normative data. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 8-21.
162. Walter, D. A., & Ziegler, C. A. (1980). The effects of birth order on locus of control. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 15, 293-294.
163. Washington, R. A. (1974). The relationship between children's school performances and parent participation as a function of the movement toward community control of the schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35, 4202B.
164. Waters, E., Vaughn, B. E., Posada, G., & Kondo-Ikemura, K. (Eds.). (1995). Caregiving, cultural, and cognitive perspectives on secure-base behavior and working models: New growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 60(2-3, Serial No. 244).
165. Waters, E., Wippman, J., & Sroufe, L. A. (1979). Attachment, positive affect, and competence in the peer group: Two studies in construct validation. Child Development, 50, 821-829,
166. Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience negative emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490.
167. Weiss, J. M. (1971a). Effects of coping behavior in different warning signal conditions on stress pathology in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 77, 1-13.
168. Weiss, J. M. (1971b). Effects of punishing the coping response (conflict) on stress pathology in rats. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 77, 14-21.
169. Weiss, J. M. (1971c). Effects of coping behavior with and without a feedback signal on stress pathology in the rat. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 77, 22-30.
170. Weisz, J. R. (1986). Understanding the developing understanding of control. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.), Cognitive perspectives on children's social and behavioral development: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 18, pp. 219-285). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
171. Weisz, J. R., & Stipek, D. J. (1982). Competence, contingency, and the undevelopment of perceived control. Human Development, 25, 250-281.
172. Williams, J. L., & Lierle, D. M. (1986). Effects of stress controllability, immunization, and therapy on the subsequent defeat of colony intruders. Animal Learning and Behavior, 14, 305-314.
173. Williams, J. L., & Scott, D. K. (1989). Influence of conspecific and predatory stressors and their associated odors on defensive burying and freezing responses. Animal Learning and Behavior, 17, 383-393.