Treatment strategies for peripheral artery disease

Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy

Volumn 10, Issue 10, 2009, Pages 1571-1586

  McCann, Andrew B ^b   Jaff, Michael R ^a  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Atherosclerotic risk factor intervention; Intermittent claudication; Peripheral artery disease

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMFEBUTAMONE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ARGININE; ATORVASTATIN; BERAPROST; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CARNITINE; CILOSTAZOL; CLOPIDOGREL; DEFIBROTIDE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIPYRIDAMOLE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; NAFTIDROFURYL; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PICOTAMIDE; PLACEBO; PROPIONYLCARNITINE; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; RAMIPRIL; RECOMBINANT FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR; SIMVASTATIN; SULFONYLUREA; TELMISARTAN; TICLOPIDINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VARENICLINE; WARFARIN;

AEROBIC EXERCISE; ANGIOGENESIS; ANGIONEUROTIC EDEMA; ANKLE BRACHIAL INDEX; ARTERY DISEASE; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL TRIAL; COUGHING; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIARRHEA; DIZZINESS; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; EXERCISE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; GRAFT OCCLUSION; HEADACHE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART PALPITATION; HEART VENTRICLE TACHYCARDIA; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION; ISCHEMIA; KIDNEY FUNCTION; LEG REVASCULARIZATION; LIMB AMPUTATION; LIMB ISCHEMIA; LOW DRUG DOSE; NAUSEA; NICOTINE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; PERCUTANEOUS TRANSLUMINAL ANGIOPLASTY; PREVALENCE; PROGNOSIS; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; RESTENOSIS; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SMOKING CESSATION; STROKE; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VASCULAR SURGERY;

ANKLE BRACHIAL INDEX; ANTILIPEMIC AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COST OF ILLNESS; EXERCISE THERAPY; HUMANS; INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; PATIENT SELECTION; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASES; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

EID: 67650529577     PISSN: 14656566     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1517/14656560902988502     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Hirsch AT, Haskal ZJ, Hertzer NR, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 Practice Guidelines for the management of patients with peripheral arterial disease (lower extremity, renal, mesenteric, and abdominal aortic): a collaborative report from the American Association for Vascular Surgery/Society for Vascular Surgery, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society for Vascular Medicine and Biology, Society of Interventional Radiology, and the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Peripheral Arterial Disease): endorsed by the American Association of Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Rehabilitation; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; Society for Vascular Nursing; TransAtlantic Inter-Society Consensus; and Vascular Disease Foundation. Circulation 2006;113:e463-654
2. Hiatt WR, Goldstone J, Smith SC Jr, et al. Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease Symposium II: nomenclature for vascular diseases. Circulation 2008;118:2826-2829
3. Criqui MH, Langer RD, Fronek A, et al. Mortality over a period of 10 years in patients with peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med 1992;326:381-386
4. Golomb BA, Dang TT, Criqui MH. Peripheral arterial disease: morbidity and mortality implications. Circulation 2006;114:688-699 (Pubitemid 44252311)
5. Hirsch AT, Criqui MH, Treat-Jacobson D, et al. Peripheral arterial disease detection, awareness, and treatment in primary care. JAMA 2001;286:1317-1324 (Pubitemid 33015522)
6. Fowkes FG, Housley E, Cawood EH, et al. Edinburgh Artery Study: prevalence of asymptomatic and symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the general population. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:384-392
7. Jude EB, Oyibo SO, Chalmers N, Boulton AJ. Peripheral arterial disease in diabetic and nondiabetic patients: a comparison of severity and outcome. Diabetes Care 2001;24:1433-1437 (Pubitemid 33716433)
8. Selvin E, Marinopoulos S, Berkenblit G, et al. Meta-analysis: glycosylated hemoglobin and cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:421-431 (Pubitemid 39281878)
9. Leskinen Y, Salenius JP, Lehtimaki T, et al. The prevalence of peripheral arterial disease and medial arterial calcification in patients with chronic renal failure: requirements for diagnostics. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;40:472-479 (Pubitemid 34971274)
10. Kroon AA, van Asten WN, Stalenhoef AF. Effect of apheresis of low-density lipoprotein on peripheral vascular disease in hypercholesterolemic patients with coronary artery disease. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:945-954 (Pubitemid 26424522)
11. Ridker PM, Stampfer MJ, Rifai N. Novel risk factors for systemic atherosclerosis: a comparison of C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, homocysteine, lipoprotein(a), and standard cholesterol screening as predictors of peripheral arterial disease. JAMA 2001;285:2481-2485 (Pubitemid 32433842)
12. Graham IM, Daly LE, Refsum HM, et al. Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for vascular disease. The European Concerted Action Project. JAMA 1997;277:1775-1781
13. Weitz JI, Byrne J, Clagett GP, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic arterial insufficiency of the lower extremities: a critical review. Circulation 1996;94:3026-3049 (Pubitemid 26411793)
14. Duprez D. Natural history and evolution of peripheral obstructive arterial disease. Int Angiol 1992;11:165-168
15. Stoffers HE, Rinkens PE, Kester AD, et al. The prevalence of asymptomatic and unrecognized peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Int J Epidemiol 1996;25:282-290 (Pubitemid 26137108)
16. Norgren L, Hiatt WR, Dormandy JA, et al. Inter-society consensus for the management of peripheral arterial disease (TASC II). J Vasc Surg 2007;45(Suppl S):S5-67 (Pubitemid 46068992)
17. Bild DE, Selby JV, Sinnock P, et al. Lower-extremity amputation in people with diabetes. Epidemiology and prevention. Diabetes Care 1989;12:24-31
18. McKenna M, Wolfson S, Kuller L. The ratio of ankle and arm arterial pressure as an independent predictor of mortality. Atherosclerosis 1991;87:119-128
19. Sukhija R, Aronow WS, Yalamanchili K, et al. Association of ankle-brachial index with severity of angiographic coronary artery disease in patients with peripheral arterial disease and coronary artery disease. Cardiology 2005;103:158-160 (Pubitemid 41094865)
20. Criqui MH, Ninomiya JK, Wingard DL, et al. Progression of peripheral arterial disease predicts cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;52:1736-1742
21. Welten GM, Schouten O, Hoeks SE, et al. Long-term prognosis of patients with peripheral arterial disease: a comparison in patients with coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:1588-1596
22. Garg PK, Tian L, Criqui MH, et al. Physical activity during daily life and mortality in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2006;114:242-248 (Pubitemid 44297117)
23. Stewart KJ, Hiatt WR, Regensteiner JG, Hirsch AT. Exercise training for claudication. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1941-1951
24. Regensteiner JG, Steiner JF, Hiatt WR. Exercise training improves functional status in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 1996;23:104-115 (Pubitemid 26037967)
25. Spronk S, Bosch JL, den Hoed PT, et al. Intermittent claudication: clinical effectiveness of endovascular revascularization versus supervised hospital-based exercise training-randomized controlled trial. Radiology 2009;250:586-595
26. Watson LEB, Leng GC. Metanalysis exercise for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008:CD000990
27. Bendermacher BL, Willigendael EM, Teijink JA, Prins MH. Supervised exercise therapy versus non-supervised exercise therapy for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006:CD005263
28. Zwierska I, Walker RD, Choksy SA, et al. Upper- vs lower-limb aerobic exercise rehabilitation in patients with symptomatic peripheral arterial disease: a randomized controlled trial. J Vasc Surg 2005;42:1122-1130 (Pubitemid 41817166)
29. Meijer WT, Grobbee DE, Hunink MG, et al. Determinants of peripheral arterial disease in the elderly: the Rotterdam study. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:2934-2938 (Pubitemid 32009050)
30. Hjermann I, Velve Byre K, Holme I, Leren P. Effect of diet and smoking intervention on the incidence of coronary heart disease. Report from the Oslo Study Group of a randomised trial in healthy men. Lancet 1981;2:1303-1310
31. Jonason T, Bergstrom R. Cessation of smoking in patients with intermittent claudication. Effects on the risk of peripheral vascular complications, myocardial infarction and mortality. Acta Med Scand 1987;221:253-260
32. Girolami B, Bernardi E, Prins MH, et al. Treatment of intermittent claudication with physical training, smoking cessation, pentoxifylline, or nafronyl: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:337-345 (Pubitemid 29091621)
33. Ranney L, Melvin C, Lux L, et al. Systematic review: smoking cessation intervention strategies for adults and adults in special populations. Ann Intern Med 2006;145:845-856 (Pubitemid 351650338)
34. Joseph AM, Norman SM, Ferry LH, et al. The safety of transdermal nicotine as an aid to smoking cessation in patients with cardiac disease. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1792-1798 (Pubitemid 26412397)
35. Jorenby DE, Leischow SJ, Nides MA, et al. A controlled trial of sustained-release bupropion, a nicotine patch, or both for smoking cessation. N Engl J Med 1999;340:685-691 (Pubitemid 29110752)
36. Gonzales D, Rennard SI, Nides M, et al. Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006;296:47-55
37. Jorenby DE, Hays JT, Rigotti NA, et al. Efficacy of varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs placebo or sustained-release bupropion for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006;296:56-63
38. Cahill K, Stead LF, Lancaster T. Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007:CD006103
39. Murabito JM, Evans JC, Nieto K, et al. Prevalence and clinical correlates of peripheral arterial disease in the Framingham Offspring Study. Am Heart J 2002;143:961-965 (Pubitemid 34666884)
40. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-2572 (Pubitemid 37430158)
41. Mehler PS, Coll JR, Estacio R, et al. Intensive blood pressure control reduces the risk of cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial disease and type 2 diabetes. Circulation 2003;107:753-756 (Pubitemid 36222605)
42. Radack K, Deck C. Beta-adrenergic blocker therapy does not worsen intermittent claudication in subjects with peripheral arterial disease. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:1769-1776
43. Heintzen MP, Strauer BE. Peripheral vascular effects of beta-blockers. Eur Heart J 1994;15(Suppl C):2-7
44. Mancini GB, Henry GC, Macaya C, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) Study. Circulation 1996;94:258-265
45. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, et al. Effects of an angiotensin-converting- enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-153 •• This was a pivotal trial establishing cardioprotective benefits of medical therapy in patients with atherosclerosis.
46. Ahimastos AA, Lawler A, Reid CM, et al. Brief communication: ramipril markedly improves walking ability in patients with peripheral arterial disease: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2006;144:660-664 (Pubitemid 46780650)
47. Yusuf S, Teo KK, Pogue J, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008;358:1547-1559
48. Mann JF, Schmieder RE, McQueen M, et al. Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:547-553
49. Effect of intensive diabetes management on macrovascular events and risk factors in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Am J Cardiol 1995;75:894-903
50. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet 1998;352:837-853 (Pubitemid 28416718)
51. Nathan DM, Cleary PA, Backlund JY, et al. Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease in patients with type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2643-2653 (Pubitemid 41817713)
52. Pomrehn P, Duncan B, Weissfeld L, et al. The association of dyslipoproteinemia with symptoms and signs of peripheral arterial disease. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study. Circulation 1986;73:I100-7
53. Feringa HH, van Waning VH, Bax JJ, et al. Cardioprotective medication is associated with improved survival in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;47:1182-1187 • This was a pivotal trial establishing cardioprotective benefits of medical therapy in patients with atherosclerosis.
54. Schillinger M, Exner M, Mlekusch W, et al. Statin therapy improves cardiovascular outcome of patients with peripheral artery disease. Eur Heart J 2004;25:742-748 (Pubitemid 38647934)
55. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002;106:3143-3421
56. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, Mccabe CH, et al. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2004;350:1495-1504 (Pubitemid 38477774)
57. LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1425-1435 (Pubitemid 40471450)
58. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med 2008;359:2195-2207
59. Feringa HH, Karagiannis SE, van Waning VH, et al. The effect of intensified lipid-lowering therapy on long-term prognosis in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Vasc Surg 2007;45:936-943 (Pubitemid 46661787)
60. Leng GC, Price JF, Jepson RG. Lipid-lowering for lower limb atherosclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000:CD000123
61. Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Pyorala K, et al. Effect of simvastatin on ischemic signs and symptoms in the Scandinavian simvastatin survival study (4S). Am J Cardiol 1998;81:333-335 (Pubitemid 28099310)
62. Aronow WS, Nayak D, Woodworth S, Ahn C. Effect of simvastatin versus placebo on treadmill exercise time until the onset of intermittent claudication in older patients with peripheral arterial disease at six months and at one year after treatment. Am J Cardiol 2003;92:711-712 (Pubitemid 37103026)
63. Mohler ER III, Hiatt WR, Creager MA. Cholesterol reduction with atorvastatin improves walking distance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Circulation 2003;108:1481-1486
64. Hess H, Mietaschk A, Deichsel G. Drug-induced inhibition of platelet function delays progression of peripheral occlusive arterial disease. A prospective double-blind arteriographically controlled trial. Lancet 1985;1:415-419
65. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002;324:71-86 • This was a pivotal trial establishing cardioprotective benefits of medical therapy in patients with atherosclerosis.
66. Hiatt WR, Krantz MJ. Masterclass series in peripheral arterial disease. Antiplatelet therapy for peripheral arterial disease and claudication. Vasc Med 2006;11:55-60
67. Collins TC, Souchek J, Beyth RJ. Benefits of antithrombotic therapy after infrainguinal bypass grafting: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 2004;117:93-99 (Pubitemid 38953728)
68. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). CAPRIE Steering Committee. Lancet 1996;348:1329-1339 • This was a pivotal trial establishing cardioprotective benefits of medical therapy in patients with atherosclerosis.
69. Bennett CL, Connors JM, Carwile JM, et al. Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura associated with clopidogrel. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1773-1777 (Pubitemid 30390236)
70. Bhatt DL, Fox KA, Hacke W, et al. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med 2006;354:1706-1717
71. Cacoub PP, Bhatt DL, Steg PG, et al. Patients with peripheral arterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. Eur Heart J 2009;30:192-201
72. Anand S, Yusuf S, Xie C, et al. Oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy and peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med 2007;357:217-227 (Pubitemid 47080386)
73. The effects of oral anticoagulants in patients with peripheral arterial disease: rationale, design, and baseline characteristics of the Warfarin and Antiplatelet Vascular Evaluation (WAVE) trial, including a meta-analysis of trials. Am Heart J 2006;151:1-9 (Pubitemid 41815323)
74. Hiatt WR. Medical treatment of peripheral arterial disease and claudication. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1608-1621 (Pubitemid 32479915)
75. Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Meissner MH, Strandness DE Jr. Cilostazol has beneficial effects in treatment of intermittent claudication: results from a multicenter, randomized, prospective, double-blind trial. Circulation 1998;98:678-686 • This was a pivotal trial establishing cardioprotective benefits of medical therapy in patients with atherosclerosis.
76. Beebe HG, Dawson DL, Cutler BS, et al. A new pharmacological treatment for intermittent claudication: results of a randomized, multicenter trial. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2041-2050 (Pubitemid 29453592)
77. Money SR, Herd JA, Isaacsohn JL, et al. Effect of cilostazol on walking distances in patients with intermittent claudication caused by peripheral vascular disease. J Vasc Surg 1998;27:267-74; discussion 274-275 (Pubitemid 28136807)
78. Thompson PD, Zimet R, Forbes WP, Zhang P. Meta-analysis of results from eight randomized, placebo-controlled trials on the effect of cilostazol on patients with intermittent claudication. Am J Cardiol 2002;90:1314-1319 (Pubitemid 35449476)
79. Dawson DL, Cutler BS, Hiatt WR, et al. A comparison of cilostazol and pentoxifylline for treating intermittent claudication. Am J Med 2000;109:523-530 (Pubitemid 30814817)
80. Biondi-Zoccai GG, Lotrionte M, Anselmino M, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials appraising the impact of cilostazol after percutaneous coronary intervention. Am Heart J 2008;155:1081-1089
81. Soga Y, Yokoi H, Kawasaki T, et al. Efficacy of cilostazol after endovascular therapy for femoropopliteal artery disease in patients with intermittent claudication. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009;53:48-53
82. Wilhite DB, Comerota AJ, Schmieder FA, et al. Managing PAD with multiple platelet inhibitors: the effect of combination therapy on bleeding time. J Vasc Surg 2003;38:710-713 (Pubitemid 37254796)
83. Nony P, Boissel JP, Lievre M, et al. Evaluation of the effect of phosphodiesterase inhibitors on mortality in chronic heart failure patients. A meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1994;46:191-196 (Pubitemid 24137425)
84. Oka RK, Szuba A, Giacomini JC, Cooke JP. A pilot study of L-arginine supplementation on functional capacity in peripheral arterial disease. Vasc Med 2005;10:265-274 (Pubitemid 43137276)
85. Pratt CM. Analysis of the cilostazol safety database. Am J Cardiol 2001;87:28D-33D
86. De Backer TL, Vander Stichele R, Lehert P, Van Bortel L. Naftidrofuryl for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008:CD001368
87. Bode-Boger SM, Boger RH, Alfke H, et al. L-arginine induces nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in patients with critical limb ischemia. A randomized, controlled study. Circulation 1996;93:85-90
88. Boger RH, Bode-Boger SM, Thiele W, et al. Restoring vascular nitric oxide formation by L-arginine improves the symptoms of intermittent claudication in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32:1336-1344 (Pubitemid 28522392)
89. Maxwell AJ, Anderson BE, Cooke JP. Nutritional therapy for peripheral arterial disease: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of Heart Bar. Vasc Med 2000;5:11-19 (Pubitemid 30143357)
90. Wilson AM, Harada R, Nair N, et al. L-arginine supplementation in peripheral arterial disease: no benefit and possible harm. Circulation 2007;116:188-195
91. Schulman SP, Becker LC, Kass DA, et al. L-arginine therapy in acute myocardial infarction: the Vascular Interaction with Age in Myocardial Infarction (VINTAGE MI) randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2006;295:58-64 (Pubitemid 43042690)
92. Bednarz B, Jaxa-Chamiec T, Maciejewski P, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral l-arginine in acute myocardial infarction. Results of the multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled ARAMI pilot trial. Kardiol Pol 2005;62:421-427
93. Hiatt WR, Wolfel EE, Regensteiner JG, Brass EP. Skeletal muscle carnitine metabolism in patients with unilateral peripheral arterial disease. J Appl Physiol 1992;73:346-353
94. Brevetti G, Chiariello M, Ferulano G, et al. Increases in walking distance in patients with peripheral vascular disease treated with L-carnitine: a double-blind, cross-over study. Circulation 1988;77:767-773 (Pubitemid 18093497)
95. Brevetti G, Perna S, Sabba C, et al. Superiority of L-propionylcarnitine vs L-carnitine in improving walking capacity in patients with peripheral vascular disease: an acute, intravenous, double-blind, cross-over study. Eur Heart J 1992;13:251-255
96. Brevetti G, Perna S, Sabba C, et al. Propionyl-L-carnitine in intermittent claudication: double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose titration, multicenter study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1411-1416
97. Brevetti G, Perna S, Sabba C, et al. Effect of propionyl-L-carnitine on quality of life in intermittent claudication. Am J Cardiol 1997;79:777-780 (Pubitemid 27152336)
98. Hiatt WR, Regensteiner JG, Creager MA, et al. Propionyl-L-carnitine improves exercise performance and functional status in patients with claudication. Am J Med 2001;110:616-622 (Pubitemid 32510688)
99. Brevetti G, Diehm C, Lambert D. European multicenter study on propionyl-L-carnitine in intermittent claudication. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;34:1618-1624 (Pubitemid 29528679)
100. Porter JM, Cutler BS, Lee BY, et al. Pentoxifylline efficacy in the treatment of intermittent claudication: multicenter controlled double-blind trial with objective assessment of chronic occlusive arterial disease patients. Am Heart J 1982;104:66-72
101. Lipsitz EC, Kim S. Antithrombotic therapy in peripheral arterial disease. Cardiol Clin 2008;26:289-98, vii
102. Treatment of limb threatening ischaemia with intravenous iloprost: a randomised double-blind placebo controlled study. U.K. Severe Limb Ischaemia Study Group. Eur J Vasc Surg 1991;5:511-516
103. Norgren L, Alwmark A, Angqvist KA, et al. A stable prostacyclin analogue (iloprost) in the treatment of ischaemic ulcers of the lower limb. A Scandinavian-Polish placebo controlled, randomised multicenter study. Eur J Vasc Surg 1990;4:463-467 (Pubitemid 20347988)
104. Scheffler P, de la Hamette D, Gross J, et al. Intensive vascular training in stage IIb of peripheral arterial occlusive disease. The additive effects of intravenous prostaglandin E1 or intravenous pentoxifylline during training. Circulation 1994;90:818-822
105. Belch JJ, Bell PR, Creissen D, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluating the efficacy and safety of AS-013, a prostaglandin E1 prodrug, in patients with intermittent claudication. Circulation 1997;95:2298-2302 (Pubitemid 27191008)
106. Reiter M, Bucek RA, Stumpflen A, Minar E. Prostanoids for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004:CD000986
107. Lievre M, Azoulay S, Lion L, et al. A dose-effect study of beraprost sodium in intermittent claudication. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1996;27:788-793 (Pubitemid 26170837)
108. Mohler ER 3rd, Hiatt WR, Olin JW, et al. Treatment of intermittent claudication with beraprost sodium, an orally active prostaglandin I2 analogue: a double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:1679-1686 (Pubitemid 36584234)
109. Al Mheid I, Quyyumi AA. Cell therapy in peripheral arterial disease. Angiology 2009;59:705-716
110. Kalka C, Masuda H, Takahashi T, et al. Transplantation of ex vivo expanded endothelial progenitor cells for therapeutic neovascularization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:3422-3427 (Pubitemid 30183318)
111. Adams V, Lenk K, Linke A, et al. Increase of circulating endothelial progenitor cells in patients with coronary artery disease after exercise-induced ischemia. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004;24:684-690 (Pubitemid 38451604)
112. Lederman RJ, Mendelsohn FO, Anderson RD, et al. Therapeutic angiogenesis with recombinant fibroblast growth factor-2 for intermittent claudication (the TRAFFIC study): a randomised trial. Lancet 2002;359:2053-2058 (Pubitemid 34680967)
113. Rajagopalan S, Mohler ER III, Lederman RJ, et al. Regional angiogenesis with vascular endothelial growth factor in peripheral arterial disease: a phase II randomized, double-blind, controlled study of adenoviral delivery of vascular endothelial growth factor 121 in patients with disabling intermittent claudication. Circulation 2003;108:1933-1938
114. Bagger JP, Helligsoe P, Randsbaek F, et al. Effect of verapamil in intermittent claudication a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study after individual dose-response assessment. Circulation 1997;95:411-414 (Pubitemid 27056208)
115. Pittler MH, Ernst E. Ginkgo biloba extract for the treatment of intermittent claudication: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Med 2000;108:276-281 (Pubitemid 30110455)
116. Wang J, Zhou S, Bronks R, et al. Supervised exercise training combined with ginkgo biloba treatment for patients with peripheral arterial disease. Clin Rehabil 2007;21:579-586 (Pubitemid 47243987)
117. Marrapodi E, Leanza D, Giordano S, et al. Effects of defibrotide on physical performance and hemorheologic picture in patients with peripheral arteriopathy. Clin Trials Metaanal 1994;29:21-30 (Pubitemid 24152500)
118. Ferrari PCG, Gussoni G, Nazzari M. Defibrotide versus placebo in the treatment of intermittent claudication: a meta-analysis. Drug Invest 1994;7:157-160 (Pubitemid 24090446)
119. Violi F, Marubini E, Coccheri S, Nenci GG. Improvement of walking distance by defibrotide in patients with intermittent claudication-results of a randomized, placebo-controlled study (the DICLIS study). Defibrotide Intermittent CLaudication Italian Study. Thromb Haemost 2000;83:672-677 (Pubitemid 30248512)
120. Lindholt JS, Vammen S, Lind I, et al. The progression of lower limb atherosclerosis is associated with IgA antibodies against Chlamydia pneumoniae. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 1999;18:527-529 (Pubitemid 30035077)
121. Jaff MR, Dale RA, Creager MA, et al. Anti-chlamydial antibiotic therapy for symptom improvement in peripheral artery disease. Prospective evaluation of rifalazil effect on vascular symptoms of intermittent claudication and other endpoints in chlamydia pneumoniae seropositive patients (PROVIDENCE-1). Circulation 2009
122. Leizorovicz A, Becker F. Oral buflomedil in the prevention of cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral arterial obstructive disease: a randomized, placebo-controlled, 4-year study. Circulation 2008;117:816-822 (Pubitemid 351640683)
123. Castano G, Mas Ferreiro R, Fernandez L, et al. A long-term study of policosanol in the treatment of intermittent claudication. Angiology 2001;52:115-125 (Pubitemid 32171530)
124. Brass EP, Anthony R, Cobb FR, et al. The novel phosphodiesterase inhibitor NM-702 improves claudication-limited exercise performance in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:2539-2545 (Pubitemid 44881218)
125. Nenci GG, Gresele P, Ferrari G, et al. Treatment of intermittent claudication with mesoglycan-a placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Thromb Haemost 2001;86:1181-1187 (Pubitemid 33064565)
126. Arosio E, De Marchi S, Zannoni M, et al. Effect of glutathione infusion on leg arterial circulation, cutaneous microcirculation, and pain-free walking distance in patients with peripheral obstructive arterial disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2002;77:754-759 (Pubitemid 34847716)
127. Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342:154-160 (Pubitemid 30051645)
128. Guldager B, Jelnes R, Jorgensen SJ, et al. EDTA treatment of intermittent claudication-a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Intern Med 1992;231:261-267
129. Celsing F, Eriksson M, Markstrom U, Rosfors S. Clinical and hemodynamic effects of stepwise lowering of hemoglobin concentration in patients with intermittent claudication. Angiology 1994;45:43-48 (Pubitemid 24025586)
130. Clark TW, Groffsky JL, Soulen MC. Predictors of long-term patency after femoropopliteal angioplasty: results from the STAR registry. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2001;12:923-933 (Pubitemid 32756861)
131. Lee PY, Chen WH, Ng W, et al. Low-dose aspirin increases aspirin resistance in patients with coronary artery disease. Am J Med 2005;118:723-727 (Pubitemid 40897657)
132. Bonello L, Camoin-Jau L, Arques S, et al. Adjusted clopidogrel loading doses according to vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein phosphorylation index decrease rate of major adverse cardiovascular events in patients with clopidogrel resistance: a multicenter randomized prospective study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:1404-1411
133. Mega JL, Close SL, Wiviott SD, et al. Cytochrome p-450 polymorphisms and response to clopidogrel. N Engl J Med 2009;360:354-362
134. Feiring AJ, Wesolowski AA, Lade S. Primary stent-supported angioplasty for treatment of below-knee critical limb ischemia and severe claudication: early and one-year outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44:2307-2314 (Pubitemid 39647603)
135. Sabeti S, Schillinger M, Amighi J, et al. Primary patency of femoropopliteal arteries treated with nitinol versus stainless steel self-expanding stents: propensity score-adjusted analysis. Radiology 2004;232:516-521 (Pubitemid 38971294)
136. Krankenberg H, Schluter M, Steinkamp HJ, et al. Nitinol stent implantation versus percutaneous transluminal angioplasty in superficial femoral artery lesions up to 10 cm in length: the femoral artery stenting trial (FAST). Circulation 2007;116:285-292 (Pubitemid 47196564)
137. Tepe G, Zeller T, Albrecht T, et al. Local delivery of paclitaxel to inhibit restenosis during angioplasty of the leg. N Engl J Med 2008;358:689-699 (Pubitemid 351240748)