Marathon fueling techniques: Physiologic understanding and a proposed intake schedule

Strength and Conditioning Journal

Volumn 30, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 56-65

  Bennett, John R ^a   Kehoe, Michael P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA   (United States)

Author keywords

Caloric cost; Endurance; Energy; Glycogen sparing; Hydration; Nutrition; Substrate

Indexed keywords

EID: 67649967093     PISSN: 15241602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e318187f1b5     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. Applegate EA. The Encyclopedia of Sports & Fitness Nutrition. New York: Crown Publishing, 2002. pp. 127-128, 343.
2. Below PR, Mora-Rodriguez R, Gonzalez-Alonso J, and Coyle EF. Fluid and carbohydrate ingestion independently improve performance during 1 h of intense exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 27: 200-210, 1995.
3. Benardot D. Advanced Sports Nutrition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2006. pp. 75-100, 124-132, 133-158, 263-281.
4. Bergman BC and Brooks GA. Respiratory gas-exchange ratios during graded exercise in fed and fasted trained and untrained men. J Appl Physiol 86: 479-487, 1999
5. Bhambhani Y and Singh M. Metabolic and cinematographic analysis of walking and running in men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 17: 131-137, 1985.
6. Billat, VL, Demarle A, Slawinski J, Paiva M, and Koralsztein JP. Physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 2089-2097, 2001.
7. Billat V, Lepretre PM, Heugas AM, Laurence MH, Salim D, and Koralsztein JP. Training and bioenergetic characteristics in elite male and female Kenyan runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 297-304, 2003.
8. Bompa TO. Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. 1999, pp. 343-366.
9. Burke LM, Angus DJ, Cox GR, Cummings NK, Febbraio MA, Gawthorn K, Hawley JA, Minehan M, Martin DT, and Hargreaves M. Effect of fat adaptation and carbohydrate restoration on metabolism and performance during prolonged cycling. J Appl Physiol 89, 2413-2421, 2000.
10. Casa DJ, Armstrong LE, Hillman SK, Montain SJ, Reiff RV, Rich BSE, Roberts WO, and Stone JA. National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: fluid replacement for athletes. J Athl Train 35: 212-214, 2007.
11. Chuevront SN, Carter R, Montain SJ, Stephenson LA, and Sawka MN. Influence of hydration and airflow on thermoregulatory control in the heat. J Thermal Biol 29: 471-477, 2004.
12. Cheuvront SN, Haymes SN, and Sawka MN. Comparison of sweat loss estimates for women during prolonged high-intensity running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 1344-1350, 2002.
13. Clark HR. Nutritional strategies of mountain marathon competitors-an observational study. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 15: 160-172, 2005.
14. Coggan AR and Coyle EF. Effect of carbohydrate feedings during high-intensity exercise. J Appl Physiol 65: 1703-1709, 1988.
15. Coggan AR and Coyle EF. Metabolism and performance following carbohydrate ingestion late in exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 21: 59-65, 1989.
16. Costill DL, Cote R, Miller E, Miller T, and Wynder S. Water and electrolyte replacement during repeated days of work in the heat. Aviation, Space, & Environ Med 46: 795-800, 1975.
17. Couture S, Massicotte D, Lavoie C, Hillaire-Marcel C, and Peronnet F. Oral [13C]glucose and endogenous energy substrate oxidation during prolonged treadmill running. J Appl Physiol 92: 1255-1260, 2002.
18. Coyle E.F. (2004). Fluid and fuel intake during exercise. J Sports Sci 22: 39-55.
19. Coyle EF, Coggan AR, Hemmert MK, and Ivy JL Muscle glycogen utilization during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J Appl Physiol 61: 165-172, 1986.
20. Coyle EF, Costill DL, Fink WJ, and Hoopes DG. Gastric emptying rates for selected athletic drinks. Res Quarterly, 49: 119-124, 1978.
21. Coyle EF and Montain SJ. Carbohydrate and fluid ingestion during exercise: are there trade-offs? Med Sci Sports Exerc 24: 671-87, 1992.
22. Daniels J. Daniels' Running Formula: Proven Programs 800m to the Marathon. (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004. pp. Ix2Xviii; 3-16.
23. Davis JM, Burgess WA, Slentz CA, and Bartoli WP. Fluid availability of sports drinks differing in carbohydrate type and concentration. Am J Clin Nutr 51, 1054, 1990.
24. Dennis SC and Noakes TD. Advantages of a smaller body mass in humans when distance-running in warm, humid conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol 79, 280, 1999.
25. Dennis SC, Noakes TD, and Hawley JA. Nutritional strategies to minimize fatigue during prolonged exercise: fluid, electrolyte and energy replacement. J Sports Sci 15: 305-313, 1997.
26. El-Sayed MS, MacLaren D, and Rattu AJ. Exogenous carbohydrate utilization: effects on metabolism and exercise performance. Comp Biochem Physiol Part A 118A: 789-803, 1997.
27. Farrell PA, Wilmore JH, Coyle EF, Billing JE, and Costill DL. Plasma lactate accumulation and distance running performance. Med Sci Sports 11: 338-344, 1979.
28. Febbraio MA, Murton P, Selig SE, Clark SA, Lambert DL, Angus DJ, and Carey MF. Effect of Cho ingestion on exercise metabolism and performance in different ambient temperatures. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 1380-1387, 1996.
29. Foster C, Hoyos J, Earnest C, and Lucia A. Regulation of energy expenditure during prolonged athletic competition. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 670-675, 2005.
30. Galloway SDR and Maughan RJ. The effects of substrate and fluid provision on thermoregulatory and metabolic responses to prolonged exercise in a hot environment. J Sports Sci 18: 339-351, 2000.
31. Gisolfi CV, Summers RW, Lambert GP, and Xia T. Effect of beverage osmolality on intestinal fluid absorption during exercise. J Appl Physiol 85: 1941-1948, 1998.
32. Glover B and Glover SF. The Competitive Runner's Handbook. New York: Penguin Group, 1999. pp. 244, 403-436.
33. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Calbet al, and Nielsen B. Muscle blood flow is reduced with dehydration during prolonged exercise in humans. J Physiol 513: 895-905, 1998.
34. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Mora-Rodriguez R, Below PR, and Coyle EF. Dehydration markedly impairs cardiovascular function in hyperthermic endurance athletes during exercise. J Appl Physiol 82: 1229-1236, 1997.
35. Gonzalez-Alonso J, Mora-Rodriguez R, and Coyle EF. Stroke volume during exercise: interaction of environment and hydration. Am J Physiol 278, H321-H330, 2000.
36. Hauswirth C and Lehenaff D. (2001). Physiological demands of running during long distance runs and triathlons. Sports Med 31: 679-689.
37. Havenith G and Van Middendorp H. The relative influence of physical fitness, acclimatization state, anthropometric measures and gender on individual reactions to heat stress. Eur J Appl Physiol 61: 419-427, 1990.
38. Hawley J. The fuels for exercise. Aus J Nutr Diet 58 (Suppl 1): 19-22, 2001.
39. Hawley JA, Dennis SC, Laidler BJ, Bosch AN, Noakes TD, and Brouns F. High rates of exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from starch ingested during exercise. J Appl Physiol 71: 1801-1806, 1991
40. Helgerud J, Ingjer F, and Stromme SB. Sex differences in performance-matched marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 61: 433-439, 1990.
41. Hew-Butler TD, Sharwood K, Collins M, Speedy D, and Noakes T. Sodium supplementation is not required to maintain serum sodium concentrations during an ironman triathlon. Br J Sports Med 40: 255-259, 2006.
42. Higdon H. Hal Higdon's How to Train. New York: Rodale Press, 1997. pp. 204-206.
43. Higdon H. Marathon: The Ultimate Training Guide (3rd ed.). New York: Rodale Press, 2005. pp. 13-14, 106, 250-252.
44. Hill RJ and Davies PS. Energy expenditure during 2 wk of an ultra-endurance run around Australia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 33: 148-151, 2001.
45. Ivy JL, Costill DL, Fink WJ, and Lower RW (1979). Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance. Med Sci Sport 11: 6-11.
46. Jentjens RL, Achten J, and Jeukendrup AE. High oxidation rates from combined carbohydrates ingested during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 36: 1151-1158, 2004.
47. Jeukendrup AE, Borghouts LB, Saris WHM, and Wagenmakers AJM. Reduced oxidation rates of ingested glucose during prolonged exercise with low endogenous Cho availability. J Appl Physiol 81: 1952-1957, 1996.
48. Jeukendrup AE and Jentjens R. Oxidation of carbohydrate feedings during prolonged exercise. Sports Med 29: 407-424, 2000.
49. Johnson NA, Stannard SR, and Thompson MW. Muscle triglyceride and glycogen in endurance exercise-implications for performance. Sports Med 34: 151-164, 2004.
50. Khanna GL and Manna I. Supplementary effect of carbohydrate-electrolyte drink on sports performance, lactate removal, & cardiovascular response of athletes. Indian J Med 121, 665-669, 2005.
51. Lambert GP, Chang RT, Xia T, Summers RW, and Gisolfi CV. Absorption from different intestinal segments during exercise. J Appl Physiol 83: 204-212, 1997.
52. Laursen PB and Rhodes EC. Factors affecting performance in an ultraendurance triathlon. Sports Med 31: 195-209, 2001.
53. Locksley R. Fuel utilization in marathons: implications for performance. Western J Med 133: 493-502, 1980.
54. Massicotte D, Peronnet F, Brisson G, Boivin L, and Hillaire-Marcel C. Oxidation of exogenous carbohydrate during prolonged exercise in fed and fasted conditions. Int J Sports Med 11: 253-258, 1990.
55. McArdle WD, Katch FI, and Katch VL. Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition, and Human Performance (5th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2001. pp. 82-155, 202-219.
56. McConnel G, Kloot K, and Hargreaves M. Effect of timing of carbohydrate ingestion on endurance exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 1300-1304, 1996.
57. Meinier DR and Pugh LGCE. The relation of oxygen intake and velocity of walking and running, in competition walkers. J Physiol 197: 717-721, 1968.
58. Millet GP, Jaouen B, Borrani F, and Candau R. Effects of concurrent endurance and strength training on running economy and Vo2 kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 34: 1351-1359, 2002.
59. Mitchell JB, Costill DL, Houmard JA, Flynn MG, Fink WJ, and Beltz JD. Effects of carbohydrate ingestion on gastric emptying and exercise performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 20: 110-115, 1988.
60. Montain SJ and Coyle EF. Influence of the timing of fluid ingestion on temperature regulation during exercise. J Appl Physiol 75: 688-695, 1993.
61. Moodley D, Noakes TD, Bosch AN, Hawley JA, Schall R, and Dennis SC. Oxidation of exogenous carbohydrate during prolonged exercise: the effects of the carbohydrate type and its concentration. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 64: 328-334, 1992.
62. Noakes TD, Rehrer NJ, and Maughan RJ. The importance of volume in regulating gastric emptying. Med Sci Sports Exerc 23, 307-313, 1991.
63. Noakes TD, Sharwood K, Speedy D, Hew T, Reid S, Dugas J, Almond C, Wharam P, and Weschler L. Three independent biological mechanisms cause exercise-associated hyponatremia: evidence from 2,135 weighed competitive athletic performances. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102: 18550-18555, 2005.
64. Pfitzinger PD and Douglas SM. Advanced Marathoning. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2001. pp. 39-46, 104, 117-127.
65. Rehrer NJ, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, Ten Hoor F, and Saris WHM. Effects of dehydration on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal distress while running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22: 790-795, 1990.
66. Rehrer NJ, Brouns F, Beckers EJ, Ten Hoor F, and Saris WHM. Gastric emptying with repeated drinking during running and bicycling. Int J Sports Med 11: 238-243, 1990.
67. Rehrer NJ, Janssen GME, Brouns F, and Saris WHM. Fluid intake and gastrointestinal problems in runners competing in a 25-km race and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 10: S22-S25, 1989.
68. Ryan AJ, Lambert GP, Shi X, Chang RT, Summers RW, and Gisolfi CV. Effect of hypohydration on gastric emptying and intestinal absorption during exercise. J Appl Physiol 84: 1581-1588, 1998.
69. Ryan M. Sports Nutrition for Endurance Athletes. Boulder, CO: Velo Press, 2007. pp. 130-136, 2512-266.
70. Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, and Hawley JA (2004). Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners. Sports Med 34: 465-485.
71. Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain, and Stachenfeld NS. ACSM Position Stand: Exercise & fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc 39: 377-390, 2007.
72. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, and Carter R. Human water needs. Nutr Rev 63: S30-S39, 2005.
73. Schedl HP. Scientific rationale for oral rehydration therapy. Clin Ther 12 (Suppl A): 14-21, 1990.
74. Schnirring L. Inside the medical tent at the Boston Marathon. Phys Sports Med 33: 10-13, 2005.
75. Shirreffs SM. The optimal sports drink. Sportzmedizin Sporttraumatologie 51: 25-29, 2003.
76. Sjodin B and Svedenhag J. Applied physiology of marathon running. Sports Med 2: 83-99, 1985.
77. Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Singh R, Wilson W, and Burrin J. Influence of carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks on marathon running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 70: 154-160, 1995.
78. Tsintzas OK, Williams C, Wilson W, and Burrin J. Influence of carbohydrate supplementation early in exercise on endurance running capacity. Med Sci Sports Exerc 28: 1373-1379, 1996.
79. Van Hall G. Lactate as a fuel for mitochondrial respiration. Acta Physiol Scand 168: 643-656, 2000.
80. Van Schuylenbergh R, Vanden Eynde B, and Hespel P. Effect of exercise 2induced dehydration on lactate parameters during incremental exercise. Int J Sports Med 26: 854-858, 2005
81. Vogt M, Puntschart A, Howald H, Mueller B, Mannhart C, Gfeller2Tuescher L, Mullis P, and Hoppeler H. Effects of dietary fat on muscle substrates, metabolism, and performance in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 35: 952-960, 2003
82. Wallis GA, Rowlands DS, Shaw C, Jentjens RL, and Jeukendrup AE. Oxidation of combined ingestion of maltodextrins and fructose during exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 426-432, 2005
83. Wilmore JH and Costill DL. Physiology of Sport and Exercise (3rd ed). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2004. pp. 120-154, 406-441.
84. Zderic TW, Schenk S, Davidson CJ, Byerley LO, and Coyle EF. Manipulation of dietary carbohydrate and muscle glycogen affects glucose uptake during exercise when fat oxidation is impaired by B-adrenergic blockade. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287: E1195-E1201, 2004.