Exogenous carbohydrate utilisation: Effects on metabolism and exercise performance

Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - A Physiology

Volumn 118, Issue 3, 1997, Pages 789-803

  El Sayed, Mahmoud S ^a   MacLaren, Don ^a   Rattu, Angelheart J ^a  

^a LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Carbohydrate ingestion; Carbohydrate oxidation; Exercise performance; Hormonal regulation

Indexed keywords

ADRENALIN; CARBOHYDRATE; FRUCTOSE; GLUCAGON; GLUCOSE; GLYCOGEN; GROWTH HORMONE; HYDROCORTISONE; INSULIN; POLYMER;

ARTICLE; CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; ENERGY METABOLISM; EXERCISE; FATIGUE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE UTILIZATION; GLYCOGEN MUSCLE LEVEL; HORMONAL REGULATION; HUMAN; INSULIN RELEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; STOMACH EMPTYING;

BIOLOGICAL TRANSPORT, ACTIVE; BLOOD GLUCOSE; DIETARY SUCROSE; EXERCISE; FRUCTOSE; GASTRIC EMPTYING; GLUCANS; GLUCOSE; GLYCOGEN; HUMANS; INSULIN; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; OXIDATION-REDUCTION;

EID: 0031280531     PISSN: 03009629     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0300-9629(97)00064-9     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. 1. Ahlborg, G.; Felig, P. Lactate and glucose exchange across the forearm, legs, and splanchnic bed during and after prolonged leg exercise. J. Clin. Invest. 69:45-54;1982.
2. 2. Ahlborg, G.; Hagenfeldt, L.; Wahren, J. Substrate utilisation by the inactive leg during one-leg or arm exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 39:718-723;1975.
3. 3. Alberici, J.C.; Farrell, P.A.; Kris-Etherton, P.M.; Shively, C.A. Effects of preexercise candy bar ingestion on glycemic response, substrate utilisation, and performance. Int. J. Sports Nutr. 3:323-333;1993.
4. 4. American College of Sports Medicine. Position stand on prevention of thermal injuries during distance running. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19:529-533;1987.
5. 5. Benade, A.J.S.; Jansen, C.R.; Rogers, G.G.; Wyndham, C.H.; Strydom, N.B. The significance of an increased RQ after sucrose ingestion during prolonged aerobic exercise. Pflugers Arch. 342:199-206;1973.
6. 6. Berger, M.; Hagg, S.A.; Goodman, M.N.; Ruderman, N.B. Glucose metabolism in perfused skeletal muscle: Effects of starvation, diabetes, fatty acids, acetoacetate, insulin, and exercise. Biochem. J. 158:191-202;1976.
7. 7. Boje, O. Der Hutzucker Wahrend und nach korperlicher Arbeit. Scand. Arch. Physiol. 74(Suppl. 10):1-48;1936.
8. 8. Bonen, A.; Clune, P.A.; Tan, M.H. Chronic exercise increases insulin binding in muscles but not liver. Am. J. Physiol. 251:E196-E203;1986.
9. 9. Bonen, A.; Tan, M.H.; Watson-Wright, W.M. Effects of exercise on insulin binding and glucose metabolism in muscle. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 62:1500-1504;1984.
10. 10. Bosch, A.N.; Dennis, S.C.; Noakes, T.D. Influence of carbohydrate loading on fuel substrate turnover and oxidation during prolonged exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 74:1921-1927;1993.
11. 14C] glucose in hens and cocks during prolonged treadmill exercise. Comp. Biochem. Physiol 82A:851-854;1985.
12. 12. Chasiotis, D. The regulation of glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen breakdown in human skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol. Scand. 518(Suppl.):1-68;1983.
13. 13. Coggan, A.R.; Coyle, E.F. Reversal of fatigue during prolonged exercise by carbohydrate infusion or ingestion. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:2388-2395;1987.
14. 14. Coggan, A.R.; Coyle, E.F. Effect of carbohydrate feedings during high-intensity exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 65:1703-1709;1988.
15. 15. Coggan, A.R.; Coyle, E.F. Metabolism and performance following carbohydrate ingestion late in exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21:59-65;1989.
16. 16. Coggan, A.R.; Coyle, E.F. Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: Effects on metabolism and performance. Exerc. Sports Sci. Rev. 19:1-40;1991.
17. 17. Cole, K.J.; Grandjean, P.W.; Sobszak, R.J.; Mitchell, J.B. Effect of carbohydrate composition on fluid balance, gastric emptying, and exercise performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 3: 408-417;1993.
18. 18. Consolazio, C.R.; Johnson, R.E.; Pecora, L.T. Physiological Measurements of Metabolic Functions in Man. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1963.
19. 19. Cori, C.F. Mammalian carbohydrate metabolism. Physiol. Rev. 11:143-275;1931.
20. 20. Costill, D.L.; Bennett, A.; Branham, G.; Eddy, D. Glucose ingestion at rest and during prolonged exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 34:764-769;1973.
21. 21. Costill, D.L.; Flynn, M.G.; Kirwan, J.P.; Houmard, J.A.; Mitchell, J.B. Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and swimming performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 20:249-254;1988.
22. 22. Costill, D.L.; Hargreaves, M. Carbohydrate nutrition and fatigue. Sports Med. 13:86-92;1992.
23. 23. Costill, D.L.; Saltin, B. Factors limiting gastric emptying during rest and exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 37:679-683;1974.
24. 24. Coyle, E.F.; Coggan, A.R.; Hemmert, M.K.; Ivy, J.L. Muscle glycogen utilisation during prolonged strenuous exercise when fed carbohydrate. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:165-172;1986.
25. 25. Coyle, E.F.; Coggan, A.R.; Hemmert, M.K.; Lowe, R.C.; Walters, T.J. Substrate usage during prolonged exercise following a pre-exercise meal. J. Appl. Physiol. 59:429-433; 1985.
26. 26. Coyle, E.F.; Hamilton, M.T.; Alonso, J.G.; Montain, S.J.; Ivy, J.L. Carbohydrate metabolism during intense exercise when hyperglycemic. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:834-840;1991.
27. 27. Cushman, S.W.; Wardzala, L.J. Potential mechanism of insulin action on glucose transport in the isolated rat adipose cell. J. Biol. Chem. 255:4758-4762;1980.
28. 28. Decombaz, J.; Sartori, D.; Arnaud, M.J.; Thelin, A.L.; Schurch, P.; Howald, H. Oxidation and metabolic effects of fructose or glucose ingested before exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 6:282-286;1985.
29. 29. Dill, D.B.; Edwards, H.T.; Talbott, J.H. Studies in muscular activity. VII. Factors limiting the capacity for work. J. Physiol. Lond. 77:49-62;1932.
30. 30. Douen, A.G.; Ramlal, T.; Rastogi, S.; Bilan, P.J.; Cartee, G.D.; Vranic, M.; Holloszy, J.O.; Klip, A. Exercise induces recruitment of the "insulin-responsive glucose transporter": Evidence for distinct intracellular insulin- and exercise-recruitable transporter pools in skeletal muscle. J. Biol. Chem. 265:13427-13430;1990.
31. 31. Duchman, S.M.; Bleiler, T.L.; Schedl, H.P.; Summers, R.W.; Gisolfi, C.V. Effects of gastric function on intestinal composition of oral rehydration solutions. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22(Suppl.):S89;1990.
32. 32. El-Sayed, M.S.; Rattu, A.J.M.; Roberts, I. Effects of carbohydrate feeding before and during prolonged exercise on subsequent maximal exercise performance capacity. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 5:215-224;1995.
33. 33. Eriksson, J.; Koranyi, L.; Bourey, R.; Schalin, J.C.; Widen, E.; Mueckler, M.; Permutt, A.M.; Groop, L.C. Insulin resistance in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients and their relatives is not associated with a defect in the expression of the insulin-responsive glucose transporter (GLUT-4) gene in human skeletal muscle. Diabetologia 35: 143-147;1992.
34. 34. Felig, P. The glucose-atanine cycle. Metabolism 22:179-207; 1973.
35. 35. Felig, P.; Cherif, A.; Minagawa, A.; Wahren, J. Hypoglycemia during prolonged exercise in normal men. N. Engl. J. Med. 306:895-900;1982.
36. 36. Felig, P.; Wahren, J. Fuel homeostasis during exercise. N. Engl. J. Med. 293:1078-1084;1975.
37. 37. Flynn, M.G.; Costill, D.L.; Hawley, J.A.; Fink, W.J.; Neuter, P.D.; Fielding, R.A.; Sleeper, M.D. Influence of selected carbohydrate drinks on cycling performance and glycogen use. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19:37-40;1987.
38. 38. Foster, C. Gastric emptying during exercise. Influence of carbohydrate concentration, carbohydrate source, and exercise intensity. In: Fluid Replacement and Heat Stress. National Academy of Sciences; 1990:1-11.
39. 39. Foster, C.; Costill, D.L.; Fink, W.J. Effects of preexercise feedings on endurance performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 11:1-5;1979.
40. 40. Foster, C.; Costill, D.L.; Fink, W.J. Gastric emptying characteristics of glucose and glucose polymer solution. Res. Q. Exerc. Sports 51:299-305;1980.
41. 41. Gaitanos, G.C.; Williams, C.; Boobis, L.H.; Brooks, S. Human muscle metabolism during intermittent maximal exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 75:712-719;1993.
42. 42. Galbo, H. Hormonal and metabolic adaptations to exercise. New York: Georg Thieme Verlag; 1983.
43. 43. Gautier, J.F.; Pirnay, F.; Jandrain, B.; Lacroix, M.; Mosora, F.; Scheen, A.J.; Cathelineau, G.; Lefebvre, P.J. Availability of glucose ingested during muscle exercise performed under acipimox-induced lipolysis blockade. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 68:406-412;1994.
44. 44. Gisolfi, C.V.; Summers, R.W.; Schedl, H.P.; Bleiler, T.L. Intestinal water absorption from select carbohydrate solutions in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:2142-2150;1992.
45. 45. Gleeson, M.; Maughan, R.J.; Greenhaff, P.L. Comparison of the effects of pre-exercise feeding of glucose, glycerol and placebo on endurance and fuel homeostasis in man. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 55:646-653;1986.
46. 46. Gordon, B.; Kohn, L.A.; Levine, S.A.; Matton, M.; Schriver, W. Sugar content of the blood in runners following a marathon race. JAMA 185:508-509;1925.
47. 47. Greenhaff, P.J.; Gleeson, M.; Maughan, R.J. The effect of diet on muscle pH and metabolism during high intensity exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:531-539;1988.
48. 48. Greenhaff, P.J.; Gleeson, M.; Maughan, R.J. Diet-induced metabolic acidosis and the performance of high intensity exercise in man. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:583-590;1988.
49. 49. Guezennec, C.Y. Oxidation rate, complex carbohydrates and exercise. Sports Med. 19:365-372;1995.
50. 50. Guezennec, C.Y.; Satabin, P.; Duforez, F.; Koziet, J.; Antoine, J.M. The role of type and structure of complex carbohydrates response to physical exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 14:224-231;1993.
51. 51. Guezennec, C.Y.; Satabin, P.; Duforez, F.; Merino, D.; Peronnet, F.; Koziet, J. Oxidation of corn starch, glucose, and fructose ingested before exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21:45-50;1989.
52. 52. Hargreaves, M. Carbohydrates and exercise. In: Williams, C.; Devlin, J.T. (eds). Food, Nutrition and Sports Performance. London: E & F N Spon; 1992:19-33.
53. 53. Hargreaves, M.; Costill, D.L.; Coggan, A.; Fink, W.J.; Nishibata, I. Effect of carbohydrate feedings on muscle glycogen utilization and exercise performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 16:219-222;1984.
54. 54. Hargreaves, M.; Costill, D.L.; Fink, W.J.; King, D.S.; Fielding, R.A. Effect of pre-exercise carbohydrate feedings on endurance cycling performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 19:33-36;1987.
55. 55. Hargreaves, M.; Proietto, J. Glucose kinetics during exercise in trained men. Acta Physiol. Scand. 150:221-225;1994.
56. 56. Hawley, J.A.; Bosch, A.N.; Weltan, S.M.; Dennis, S.C.; Noakes, T.D. Glucose kinetics during prolonged exercise in euglycaemic and hyperglycaemic subjects. Pflugers Arch. 426:378-386;1994.
57. 14C labeling. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:2719-2722;1992. (Letter)
58. 58. Hawley, J.A.; Dennis, S.C.; Laidler, B.J.; Bosch, A.N.; Noakes, T.D.; Brouns, F. High rates of exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from starch ingested during prolonged exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:1801-1806;1991.
59. 59. Hawley, J.A.; Dennis, S.C.; Noakes, T.D. Oxidation of carbohydrate ingested during prolonged endurance exercise. Sports Med. 14:27-42;1992.
60. 60. Hawley, J.A.; Dennis, S.C.; Nowitz, A.; Brouns, F.; Noakes, T.D. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from maltose and glucose ingested during prolonged exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:523-527;1992.
61. 61. Henriksen, E.J.; Bourey, R.E.; Rodnick, K.J.; Koranyi, C.; Permvtt, M.A.; Holloszy, J.O. Glucose transporter protein content and glucose transporter capacity in rat skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 259:E593-E598;1990.
62. 62. Hermansen, L. Muscle fatigue during maximal exercise of short duration. Med. Sports 13:45-52;1981.
63. 63. Hermansen, L.; Hultman, E.; Saltin, B. Muscle giycogen during prolonged severe exercise. Acta Physiol. Scand. 71:129-139;1967.
64. 64. Hirsch, I.B.; Marker, J.C.; Smith, L.J.; Spina, R.J.; Parvin, C.A.; Holloszy, J.O.; Cryer, P.E. Insulin and glucagon in prevention of hypoglycemia during exercise: in humans. Am. J. Physiol. 260:E695-E704;1991.
65. 65. Hirshman, M.F.; Wallberg-Henriksson, H.; Wardzala, L.J.; Horton, E.D.; Horton, E.S. Acute exercise increases the number of plasma membrane glucose transporters in rat skeletal muscle. FEBS Lett. 238:235-239;1988.
66. 66. Ivy, J.L.; Miller, W.; Dover, V. Endurance improved by ingestion of a glucose polymer supplement. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 15:466-471;1983.
67. 67. Jandrain, B.J.; Pirnay, F.; Lacroix, M.; Mosora, F.; Scheen, A.J.; Lefebvre, P.J. Effect of osmolality on availability of glucose ingested during prolonged exercise in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 67:76-82;1989.
68. 68. Jansson, E.; Hjemdahl, P.; Kaijser, L. Epinephrine-induced changes in muscle carbohydrate metabolism during exercise in male subjects. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:1466-1470;1986.
69. 69. Jenkins, D.J.A.; Wolever, T.M.S.; Taylor, R.H. Glycemic index of foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34:362-366;1981.
70. 70. Karlsson, J.; Saltin, B. Diet muscle glycogen and endurance performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 31:203-206;1971.
71. 71. Kelada, A.S.; Macaulay, S.L.; Proietto, J. Cyclic AMP acutely stimulates translocation of the major insulin-regulatable transporter. J. Biol. Chem. 267:7021-7025;1992.
72. 72. Kern, M.; Wells, J.A.; Stephens, J.M.; Elton, C.W.; Friedman, J.E.; Tapscott, E.B.; Pekala, P.H.; Dohm, G.L. Insulin responsiveness in skeletal muscle is determined by glucose transporter (GLUT-4) protein level. Biochem. J. 270:397-400;1990.
73. 73. Kjaer, M.; Engfred, K.; Fernandes, A.; Secher, N.H.; Galbo, H. Influence of sympathoadrenergic activity on hepatic glucose production during exercise in man. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22(SuppL 2):S54;1990.
74. 74. Kjaer, M,; Engfred, K.; Sonne, B.; Rasmussen, K.; Galbo, H.; Keiding, S. Regulation of hepatic glucose production during exercise in liver-transplanted subjects. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 17:235;1992.
75. 75. Kjaer, M.; Farrell, P.A.; Christensen, N.J.; Galbo, H. Increased epinephrine response and inaccurate glucoregulation in exercising athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:1693-1700;1986.
76. 76. Kjaer, M.; Kiens, B.; Hargreaves, M.; Richter, E.A. Influence of active muscle mass on glucose homeostasis during exercise in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:552-557;1991.
77. 77. Kjaer, M.; Secher, N.H.; Bach, F.W.; Galbo, H. Role of motor center activity for hormonal changes and substrate mobilization in humans. Am. J. Physiol. 253:R687-R695;1987.
78. 78. Kozlowski, S.; Brzezinska, Z.; Kruk, B.; Kaciubauschilko, H.; Greenleaf, J.E.; Nazar, K. Exercise hyperthermia as a factor limiting physical performance-temperature effect on muscle metabolism. J. Appl. Physiol. 59:766-773;1985.
79. 79. Lamb, D.R.; Brodowicz, G.R. Optimal use of fluids of varying formulations to minimize exercise-induced disturbances in homeostasis. Sports Med. 3:247-274;1986.
80. 80. Langenfeld, M.E.; Seifert, J.G.; Rudge, S.R.; Bucher, R.J. Effect of carbohydrate ingestion on performance of non-fasted cyclists during a simulated 80-mile time trial. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 34:263-270;1994.
81. 13C acetate breath test. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:306-310;1995.
82. 13C] glucose during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 79:720-725; 1995.
83. 83. Levine, S.A.; Gordon, B.; Derick, C.L. Some changes in the chemical constituents of the blood following a marathon race. JAMA 82:1778-1779;1924.
84. 84. MacLaren, D.P.M.; Miles, A.; O'Neill, I.; Critchley, M.; Grime, S.; Stockdale, H. Use of radionuctide imaging to determine gastric emptying of carbohydrate solutions during exercise. Br. J. Sports Med. 30:20-23;1996.
85. 85. MacLaren, D.P.; Reilly, T.; Campbell, I.T.; Frayn, K.N. Hormonal and metabolite responses to glucose and maltodextrin ingestion with or without the addition of guar gum. Int. J. Sports Med. 15:466-471;1994.
86. 86. MacLaren, D.P.; Reilly, T.; Campbell, I.T.; Hopkins, C.; Frayn, K.N. Hormonal metabolic responses to glucose infusion during exercise using the hyperglycaemic glucose clamp technique. J. Sports Sci. 10:553;1992.
87. 87. MacLaren, D.P.; Reilly, T.; Campbell, I.T.; Hopkins, C.; Foster, S.; Frayn, K. The hyperglycaemic glucose clamp technique, glucose utilisation and carbohydrate oxidation during exercise. J. Sports Sci. 12:143;1994.
88. 13C] fructose ingestion during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 61:1180-1184;1986.
89. 89. Massicotte, D.; Peronnet, F.; Brisson, G.; Bakkouch, K.; Marcel, C.H. Oxidation of glucose polymer during exercise: Comparison with glucose or fructose. J. Appl. Physiol. 66: 179-183;1989.
90. 90. Massicotte, D.; Peronnet, F.; Brisson, G.; Boivin, L.; Hillaire-Marcel, C. Oxidation of exogenous carbohydrate during prolonged exercise in fed and fasted conditions. Int. J. Sports Med. 11:253-258;1990.
91. 91. Massicotte, D.; Peronnet, F.; Brisson, G.R.; Hillaire-Marcel, C. Oxidation of exogenous medium-chain free fatty acids during prolonged exercise: Comparison with glucose. J. Appl. Physiol. 73:1334-1339;1992.
92. 13C glucose oxidation during exercise: North American vs Western European studies. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 67:402-407;1993.
93. 93. Maughan, R. Effects of diet composition on the performance of high intensity exercises. In: Monod, H. (ed). Nutrition et Sport. Paris: Masson; 1990:200-211.
94. 94. Mitchell, J.B.; Costill, D.L.; Houmard, J.A.; Fink, W.J.; Pascoe, D.D. Influence of carbohydrate dosage on exercise performance and glycogen metabolism. J. Appl. Physiol. 67: 1843-1849;1989.
95. 95. Moodley, D.G.; Noakes, T.D.; Bosch, A.N.; Hawley, J.A.; Schall, R. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation during prolonged exercise: The effect of carbohydrate type and its concentration. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 64:328-334;1992.
96. 96. Mosora, F.; Lacroix M.; Luyckx, A.; Pallikarakis, N.; Pirnay, F.; Krzentowski, G.; Lefebvre, P. Glucose oxidation in relation to the size of the oral glucose loading dose. Metabolism 30:1143-1149;1981.
97. 97. Murray, R.; Eddy, D.E.; Bartoli, W.P.; Paul, G.L. Gastric emptying of water and isocaloric carbohydrate solutions consumed at rest. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26:725-732;1994.
98. 98. Murray, R.; Paul, G.L.; Seifert, J.G.; Eddy, D.E.; Halaby, G.A. The effect of glucose, fructose, and sucrose ingestion during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21:275-282; 1989.
99. 99. Naveri, H.; Tikkanen, H.; Kairento, A-L.; Harkonen, M. Gastric emptying and serum insulin levels after intake of glucose-polymer solutions. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol, 58:661-665;1989.
100. 100. Nesher, R.; Karl, I.E.; Kipnis, D.M. Dissociation of effects of insulin and contraction on glucose transport in rat epitrochlearis muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 248:C226-C232;1985.
101. 101. Neufer, P.D.; Costill, D.L.; Fink, W.J.; Kirkwan, J.P.; Fielding, R.A.; Flynn, M.G. Effects of exercise and carbohydrate composition on gastric emptying. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 18: 658-662;1986.
102. 102. Neufer, P.D.; Costill, D.L; Flynn, M.G.; Kirwan, J.P.; Mitchell, J.B.; Houmard, J. Improvements in exercise performance: Effects of carbohydrate feedings and diet. J. Appl. Physiol. 63:983-988;1987.
103. 103. Nevill, M.E.; Williams, C.; Ropes, D.; Slater, C.; Nevill, A.M. Effect of diet on performance during recovery from intermittent sprint exercise. J. Sports Sci. 11:119-126;1993.
104. 104. Noakes, T.D.; Retirer, N.J.; Maughan, R.J. The importance of volume in regulating gastric emptying. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23:307-313;1991.
105. 105. Owen, M.D.; Kregel, K.C.; Wall, P.T.; Gisolfi, C.V. Effects of ingesting carbohydrate beverages during exercise in the heat. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 18:568-575;1986.
106. 106. Pallikarakis, N.; Jandrain, B.; Pirnay, F.; Mosora, F.; Lacroix, M.; Luyckx, A.S.; Lefebvre, P.J. Remarkable metabolic availability of oral glucose during long-duration exercise in humans. J. Appl. Physiol. 60:1035-1042;1986.
107. 2 in exhaled air. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 63:179-183;1991.
108. 13C-labelling. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25:297-302;1993.
109. 109. Peronnet, F.; Massicotte D. Table of nonprotein respiratory quotient: An update. Can. J. Sports Sci. 16:23-29;1991.
110. 110. Peronnet, F.; Massicotte, D.; Brisson, G.; Hillaire-Marcel, C. Use of 13C substrates for metabolic studies in exercise: Methodological considerations. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:1047-1052;1990.
111. 111. Picton, C.; Klee, C.B.; Cohen, P. The regulation of muscle phosphorylase kinase by calcium ions, calmodulin and troponin C. Cell Calcium 2:281-294;1981.
112. 13C] glucose. J. Appl. Physiol. 43: 258-261;1977.
113. 113. Pizza, F.X.; Flynn, M.G.; Duscha, B.D.; Holden, J.; Kubitz, E.R. A carbohydrate loading regimen improves high intensity, short duration exercise performance. Int. J. Sport Nutr. 5:110-116;1995.
114. 114. Rehrer, N.J. Limits to fluid availability during exercise. Thesis. Harlem, Netherlands: University of Vrieseborch; 1990.
115. 115. Rehrer, N.J.; Beckers, E.; Brouns, F.; Hoor, F.T.; Saris, W.H.M. Exercise and training effects on gastric emptying of carbohydrate beverages. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21:540-549;1989.
116. 116. Rehrer, N.J.; Brouns, F.; Beckers, E.; Hoor, F.T.; Saris, W.H.M. Gastric emptying with repeated drinking during running and bicycling. Int. J. Sports Med. 11:238-243; 1990.
117. 117. Rehrer, N.J.; Wagenmakers, A.J.M.; Beckers, E.J.; Halliday, D.; Leiper, J.B.; Brouns, F.; Maughan, R.J., Westerterp, K.; Saris, W.H.M. Gastric emptying, absorption, and carbohydrate oxidation during prolonged exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 72:468-475;1992.
118. 118. Richter, E.A. Influence of the sympathoadrenal system on some metabolic and hormonal responses to exercise in the rat. Acta Physiol. Scand. (Suppl.):528;1984.
119. 119. Richter, E.A.; Ploug, T.; Galbo, H. Increase muscle glucose uptake after exercise: No need for insulin during exercise. Diabetes 34:1041-1048;1985.
120. 120. Rizza, R.A.; Cryer, P.E.; Gerich, J.E. Role of glucagon, epinephrine and growth hormone in human glucose counterregulation: Effects of somatostatin and adrenergic blockade on plasma glucose recovery and glucose flux rates following insulin-induced hypoglycemia. J. Clin. Invest. 64:62-71; 1979.
121. 121. Ryan, A.J.; Bleiler, T.L.; Carter, J.E.; Gisolfi, C.V. Gastric emptying during prolonged cycling exercise in the heat. Med. Sci. Sports Med. 21:51-58;1989.
122. 122. Saltin, B. Metabolic fundamentals in exercise. Med. Sci. Sports 5:137-146;1973.
123. 123. Saris, W.H.M.; Goodpaster, B.H.; Jeudendrup, A.E.; Brouns, F.; Halliday, D.; Wagenmakers, A.J.M. Exogenous carbohydrate oxidation from different carbohydrate sources during exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 75:2168-2172;1993.
124. 2 Biomed. Mass Spectrom. 11:557-561;1984.
125. 125. Sherman, W.M.; Brodowicz, G.; Wright, D.A.; Allen, W.K.; Simonsen, J.; Dernbach, A. Effects of 4 h preexercise carbohydrate feedings on cycling performance. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 21:598-604;1989.
126. 126. Sherman, W.M.; Costill, D.L.; Fink, W.J.; Miller, J.M. The effect of exercise and diet manipulation on muscle glycogen and its subsequent utilization during performance. Int. J. Sports Med. 2:114-118;1981.
127. 127. Sherman, W.M.; Peden, M.C.; Wright, D.A. Carbohydrate feedings 1 h before exercise improves cycling performance. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54:866-870;1991.
128. 128. Sherman, W.M.; Wimer, G.S. Insufficient dietary carbohydrate during training: Does it impair athletic performance? Int. J. Sport Nutr. 1:28-44;1991.
129. 129. Silverman, M. Structure and function of Hexose transporters. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 60:757-794;1991.
130. 130. Sole, C.C.; Noakes, T.D. Faster gastric emptying for glucose-polymer and fructose solutions than for glucose in humans. Eur. J. App. Physiol. 58:605-612;1989.
131. 131. Tan, M.H.; Bonen, A. The in vitro effects of corticosterone on insulin binding and glucose metabolism in mouse skeletal muscles. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 62:1460-1465;1985.
132. 132. Thomas, D.E.; Brotherhood, J.R.; Brand, J.C. Carbohydrate feeding before exercise. Effect of glycemic index. Int. J. Sports Med. 12:180-186;1991.
133. 133. Tsintzas, O.K.; Williams, C.; Singh, R.; Wilson, W.; Burrin, J. Influence of carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks on marathon running performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 70:154-160; 1995.
134. 134. Tuttle, K.R.; Marker, J.C.; Dalsky, G.P.; Schwartz, N.S.; Shah, S.D.; Clutter, W.E.; Holloszy, J.O.; Cryer, P.E. Glucagon not insulin, may play a secondary role in defence against hypoglycaemia during exercise. Am. J. Physiol. 254:E713-E719;1988.
135. 14C glucose ingested during prolonged exercise. Int. J. Sports Med. 1:127-131;1980.
136. 136. Vist, G.E.; Maughan, R.J. Gastric emptying of ingested solutions in man: Effect of beverage glucose concentration. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26:1269-1273;1994.
137. 137. Wagenmakers, A.J.M.; Brouns, F.; Saris, W.H.M.; Halliday, D. Oxidation rates of orally ingested carbohydrates during prolonged exercise in men. J. Appl. Physiol. 75:2774-2780; 1993.
138. 138. Wagenmakers, A.J.M.; Rehrer N.J.; Brouns, F.; Sairs, W.H.M.; Halliday, D. Maximal oxidation of oral carbohydrates during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22:S120; 1990. (Abstract)
139. 139. Wallberg-Henriksson, H.; Holloszy, J. Contractile activity increases glucose uptake by muscle in severely diabetic rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 57:1045-1049;1984.
140. 140. Wasserman, D.H.; Cherrington, A.D. Hepatic fuel metabolism during muscular work: Role and regulation. Am. J. Physiol. 260:E811-E824;1991.
141. 141. Wasserman, D.H.; Mohr, T.; Kelly, P.; Lacy, D.; Bracy, D. Impact of insulin deficiency on glucose fluxes and muscle glucose metabolism during exercise. Diabetes 41:1229-1238; 1992.
142. 142. Wasserman, D.H.; Spalding, J.A.; Lacy, D.B.; Colburn, C.A.; Goldstein, R.E.; Cherrington, A.D. Glucagon is a primary controller of hepatic glycogenolysis during muscular work. Am. J. Physiol. 257:E108-E117;1989.
143. 143. Wasserman, D.H.; Williams, P.E.; Lacy, D.B.; Green, D.R.; Cherrington, A.D. Exercise-induced fall in insulin and hepatic carbohydrate metabolism during muscular work. Am. J. Physiol. 257:E500-E509;1989.
144. 144. Wolfe, R.R. Radioactive and Stable Isotope Tracers in Biomedicine. New York: Wiley-Liss; 1992.
145. 145. Wright, D.A.; Sherman, W.M.; Dernbach, A.R. Carbohydrate feedings before, during, or in combination improve cycling endurance performance. J. Appl. Physiol. 71:1082-1088;1991.
146. 146. Yaspelkis, B.B., III; Patterson, J.G.; Anderla, P.A.; Ding, Z.; Ivy, J.L. Carbohydrate supplementation spares muscle glycogen during variable-intensity exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 75: 1477-1485;1993.
147. 147. Zierath, J.R. In vitro studies of human skeletal muscle: Hormonal and metabolic regulation of glucose transport. Acta Physiol. Scand. 155(Suppl. 626):11-96;1995.
148. 148. Zinker, B.A.; Lacy, D.B.; Bracy, D.P.; Wasserman, D.H. Role of glucose and insulin loads to the exercising limb in increasing glucose uptake and metabolism. J. Appl. Physiol. 74: 2915-2921;1993.