Biological effects and safety in magnetic resonance imaging: A review

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 6, Issue 6, 2009, Pages 1778-1798

  Hartwig, Valentina ^a   Giovannetti, Giulio ^a   Vanello, Nicola ^b   Lombardi, Massimo ^a   Landini, Luigi ^b   Simi, Silvana ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF CLINICAL PHYSIOLOGY   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PISA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Electromagnetic fields; Genotoxic effects; Magnetic resonance imaging; MRI safety

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL CELL; ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; CARCINOGENIC ACTIVITY; CYTOTOXICITY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; GENOTOXICITY; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; NORMAL HUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; RADIOFREQUENCY; REVIEW;

EID: 67649958169     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph6061778     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Picano, E. Sustainability of medical imaging. BMJ 2004, 328, 578-580. (Pubitemid 38316634)
2. Simi, S.; Ballardin, M.; Casella, M.; De Marchi, D.; Hartwig, V.; Giovannetti, G.; Vanello, N.; Gabbriellini, S.; Landini, L.; Lombardi, M. Is the genotoxic effect of magnetic resonance negligible? Low persistence of micronucleus frequency in lymphocytes of individuals after cardiac scan. Mutat. Res. Fundam. Mol. Mech. Mutagen. 2008, 645, 39-43.
3. Bonassi, S.; Znaor, A.; Ceppi, M.; Lando, C.; Chang, W.P.; Holland, N.; Kirsch-Volders, M.; Zeiger, E.; Ban, S.; Barale, R.; Bigatti, M.P.; Bolognesi, C.; Cebulska- Wasilewska, A.; Fabianova, E.; Fucic, A.; Hagmar, L.; Joksic, G.; Martelli, A.; Migliore, L.; Mirkova, E.; Scarfi, M.R.; Zijno, A.; Norppa, H.; Fenech, M. An increased micronucleus frequency in peripheral blood lymphocytes predicts the risk of cancer in humans. Carcinogenesis 2007, 28, 625-631. (Pubitemid 46523357)
4. McRobbie, D.W.; Moore, E.A.; Graves, M.J.; Prince, M.R. MRI - From Picture to Proton. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, New York, USA, 2006.
5. SCENIHR (Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks). Possible effects of Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) on Human Health. European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, March 21, 2007.
6. International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP): Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300GHz). Health Phys. 1998, 74, 494-522.
7. McNeil, D.G. M.R.I.'s Strong Magnets Cited in Accidents. New York Times, August 19, 2005.
8. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Medical Device Reporting (MDR). Available online: http://www.fda.gov (accessed May 4, 2009).
9. ECRI Health Device Alerts (HDA). Available online: http://www.mdsr.ecri. org/ (accessed May 4, 2009).
10. Shellock, F.G. MR safety update 2002: implants and devices. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2002, 16, 485-496.
11. Formica, D.; Silvestri, S. Biological effects of exposure to magnetic resonance imaging: an overview. BioMed. Eng. OnLine 2004, 3, 11. (Pubitemid 38824779)
12. Drinker, C.K.; Thomson, R.M. Does the magnetic field constitute an industrial hazard? J. Ind. Hyg. 1921, 3, 117-129.
13. Davis, L.D.; Pappajohn, K.; Plavnieks, I.M. Bibliography of the biological effects of magnetic fields. Fed. Proc. 1962, 21, 1-38.
14. Schenck, J.F. Safety of strong, static magnetic fields. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2000, 12, 2-19. (Pubitemid 30437260)
15. World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 232. Static fields. World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2006.
16. Franco, G.; Perduri, R.; Murolo, A. Effetti biologici da esposizione occupazionale a campi magnetostatici utilizzati in imaging a risonanza magnetica nucleare: una rassegna. Med. Lav. 2008, 99, 16-28.
17. International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP): Guidelines on limits of exposure to static magnetic field. Health Phys. 2009, 96, 504-514.
18. Nakahara, T.; Yaguchi, H.; Yoshida, M.; Miyakoshi, J. Effects of Exposure of CHO-K1 Cells to a 10-T Static Magnetic Field. Radiology 2002, 224, 817-822. (Pubitemid 34919819)
19. Valiron, O.; Peris, L.; Rikken, G.; Schweitzer, A.; Saoudi, Y.; Remy, C.; Job, D. Cellular disorders induced by high magnetic fields. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2005, 22, 334-340. (Pubitemid 41298319)
20. Yamamoto, T.; Nagayama, Y.; Tamura, M. A blood oxygenation dependent increase in blood viscosity due to a static magnetic field. Phys. Med. Biol. 2004, 49, 3267-3277. (Pubitemid 39144344)
21. Myakoshi, J. Effects of a static magnetic field at the cellular level. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2004, doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.08.008.
22. Tenforde, T.S.; Gaffey, C.T.; Moyer, B.R.; Budinger, T.F. Cardiovascular alterations in Macaca monkeys exposed to stationary magnetic fields: experimental observations and theoretical analysis. Bioelectromagnetics 1983, 4, 1-9. (Pubitemid 13132407)
23. Saunders, R. Static magnetic fields: animal studies. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2005, 87, 225-239. (Pubitemid 39527101)
24. Wikswo, J.P.; Barach, J.P. An estimate of the steady magnetic field strength required to influence nerve conduction. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 1980, 27, 722-723. (Pubitemid 11187975)
25. Rosen, A.D.; Lubowsky, J. Magnetic field influence on central nervous system function. Exp. Neurol. 1987, 95, 679-687. (Pubitemid 17046231)
26. Rosen, A.D.; Lubowsky, J. Modification of spontaneous unit discharge in the lateral geniculate body by a magnetic field. Exp. Neurol. 1990, 108, 261-265. (Pubitemid 20192759)
27. Rosen, A.D. Mechanism of action of moderate-intensity static magnetic fields on biological systems. Cell Biochem. Biophys. 2003, 39, 163-173. (Pubitemid 41270802)
28. Kangarlu, A.; Burgess, R.E.; Zhu, H.; Nakayama, T.; Hamlin, R.L.; Abduljalil, A.M.; Robataille, P.M.L. Cognitive, cardiac, and physiological safety studies in ultra high field magnetic resonance imaging. Magn. Reson. Imaging 1999, 17, 1407-1416.
29. High, W.B.; Sikora, J.; Ugurbil, K.; Garwood, M. Subchronic in vivo effects of a high static magnetic field (9.4 T) in rats. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2000, 12, 122-139. (Pubitemid 30438387)
30. International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation (ICNIRP). Exposure to static and low frequency electromagnetic fields. In: Biological Effects and Health Consequences (0-100 kHz). Matthes, R., McKinlay, A.F., Bernhardt, J.H., Vecchia, P., Veyret, B., Eds.; ICNIRP: Munich, Germany, 2003.
31. McKinlay, A.F.; Allen, S.G.; Cox, R.; Dimbylow, P.J.; Mann, S.M.; Muirhead, C.R.; Saunders, R.D.; Sienkiewicz, Z.J.; Stather, J.W.; Wainwright, P.R. Review of the Scientific Evidence for Limiting Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (0-300 GHz). NRPB: Chilton, UK, 2003; Vol.15, No.3.
32. Suzuki, Y.; Ikehata, M.; Nakamura, K.; Nishioka, M.; Asanuma, K.; Koana, T.; Shimizu, H. Induction of micronuclei in mice exposed to static magnetic fields. Mutagenesis 2001, 16, 499-501. (Pubitemid 33069642)
33. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Non-Ionising Radiation. Part 1: Static and Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields, vol.80; IARC: Lyon, France, 2002.
34. Chakeres, D.W.; De Vocht, F. Static magnetic field effects on human subjects related to magnetic resonance imaging systems. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2005, 87, 255-265. (Pubitemid 39527104)
35. De Vocht, F.; van Drooge, H.; Engels, H.; Kromhout, H. Exposure, health complaints and cognitive performance among employees of an MRI scanners manufacturing department. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2006, 23, 197-204. (Pubitemid 43191074)
36. De Vocht, F.; Stevens, T.; van Wendel De Joode, B.; Engels, H.; Kromhout, H. Acute neurobehavioral effects of exposure to static magnetic fields: analyses of exposure-response relations. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2006, 23, 291-297. (Pubitemid 43364054)
37. Evans, J.A.; Savitz, D.A.; Kanal, E.; Gillen, J. Infertility and pregnancy outcome among magnetic resonance imaging workers. J. Occup. Med. 1993, 35, 1191-1195. (Pubitemid 24004423)
38. De Wilde, J.P.; Rivers, A.W.; Proce, D.L. A review of the current use of magnetic resonance imaging in pregnancy and safety implications for the fetus. Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 2005, 87, 335-353. (Pubitemid 39533590)
39. Feychting, M. Health effects of static magnetic fields-a review of the epidemiological evidence. Prog. Biophy. Mol. Biol. 2005, 87, 241-246. (Pubitemid 39527102)
40. Greenland, S.; Sheppard, A.R.; Kaune, W.T.; Poole, C.; Kelsh, M.A. A pooled analysis of magnetic fields, wire codes, and childhood leukemia. Childhood Leukemia-EMF Study Group. Epidemiology 2000, 11, 624-634.
41. Foliart, D.E.; Pollock, B.H.; Mezei, G.; Iriye, R.; Silva, J.M.; Ebi, K.L.; Kheifets, L.; Link, M.P.; Kavet, R. Magnetic field exposure and long-term survival among children with leukaemia. Br. J. Cancer 2006, 94, 161-164. (Pubitemid 43088558)
42. Forssen, U.M.; Rutqvist, L.E.; Ahlbom, A.; Feychting, M. Occupational magnetic fields and female breast cancer: a case-control study using Swedish population registers and new exposure data. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005, 161, 250-259. (Pubitemid 40223513)
43. Vogt, F.M.; Ladd, M.E.; Hunold, P.; Mateiescu, S.; Hebrank, F.X.; Zhang, A.; Debatin, J.F.; Göhde, S.C. Increased time rate of change of gradient fields: effect on peripheral nerve stimulation at clinical MR imaging. Radiology 2004, 233, 548-554. (Pubitemid 39423817)
44. Crozier, S.; Wang, H.; Trakic, A.; Liu, F. Exposure of workers to pulsed gradients in MRI. J. Mag. Res. Imaging 2007, 26, 1236-1254. (Pubitemid 350058292)
45. Lai, H.; Singh, N.P. Magnetic-field-induced DNA strand breaks in brain cells of the rat. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004b, 112, 687-694. (Pubitemid 38628398)
46. Fedrowitz, M.; Westermann, J.; Löscher, W. Magnetic field exposure increases cell proliferation but does not affect melatonin levels in the mammary gland of female Sprague Dawley rats. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 1356-1363. (Pubitemid 34407792)
47. Scarfi, M.R.; Sannino, A.; Perrotta, A.; Sarti, M.; Mesirca, P.; Bersani, F. Evaluation of genotoxic effects in human fibroblasts after intermittent exposure to 50 Hz electromagnetic fields: a confirmatory study. Radiat. Res. 2005, 164, 270-276. (Pubitemid 41233780)
48. Geard, C.R.; Osmak, R.S.; Hall, E.J.; Simon, H.E.; Maudsley, A.A.; Hilal, S.K. Magnetic resonance and ionizing radiation: A comparative evaluation in vivo of oncogenic and genotoxic potential. Radiology 1984, 152, 199-202. (Pubitemid 14083179)
49. Cohen, M.M.; Kunska. A.; Astemborski, J.A.; McCulloch, D.; Paskewitz, D.A. Effect of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells: I. Mitotic rate and chromosome breakage in human peripheral lymphocytes. Bioelectromagnetics 1986, 7, 415-423.
50. Cohen, M.M.; Kunska, A.; Astemborski, J.A.; McCulloch, D. Effect of low-level, 60-Hz electromagnetic fields on human lymphoid cells: II. Sister-chromatid exchanges in peripheral lymphocytes and lymphoblastoid cell lines. Mutat. Res. 1986, 172, 177-184. (Pubitemid 16006267)
51. Liboff, A.R.; Williams, T., Jr.; Strong, D.M.; Wistar, R., Jr. Time-varying magnetic fields: effect on DNA synthesis. Science 1984, 223, 818-820. (Pubitemid 14185159)
52. Rodegerdts, E.A.; Gronewaller, E.F.; Kehlbach, R.; Roth, P.; Wiskirchen, J.; Gebert, R.; Claussen, C.D.; Duda, S. In vitro evaluation of teratogenic effects by time-varying MR gradient fields on fetal human fibroblast. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2000, 12, 150-156. (Pubitemid 30437273)
53. Juutilainen, J.; Kumlin, T.; Naarala, J. Do extremely low frequency magnetic fields enhance the effects of environmental carcinogens? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 2006, 82, 1-12.
54. Nyenhuis, J.A.; Bourland, J.D.; Mouchawar, G.A.; Elabbady, T.Z.; Geddes, L.A.; Schaefer, D.J.; Riehl, M.E. Comparison of stimulation effects of longitudinal and transverse MRI gradient coils. In Proceedings of the Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine Annual Meeting; San Francisco, CA, USA, 1990; p. 1275.
55. Bourland, J.D.; Nyenhuis, J.A.; Mouchawar, G.A.; Geddes, L.A.; Schaefer, D.J. Human peripheral nerve stimulation from z-gradients. In Proceedings of the Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine Annual Meeting; San Francisco, CA, USA, 1990; p. 1157.
56. Bourland, J.D.; Nyenhuis, J.A.; Schaefer, D.J. Physiologic effects of intense MR Imaging gradient fields. Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am. 1999, 9, 363-377. (Pubitemid 29263864)
57. Juutilainen, J. Developmental effects of electromagnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 2005, 7, S107-115. (Pubitemid 41510880)
58. Schaefer, D.J.; Bourland, J.D.; Nyenhuis, J.A. Review of patient safety in time-varying gradient fields. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2000, 12, 20-29. (Pubitemid 30437261)
59. International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 60601-2-33 Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of magnetic resonance equipment for medical diagnosis, 2nd ed.; International Electrotechnical Commission: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
60. Reilly, J.P. Applied bioelectricity: From electrical stimulation to electropathology. Springer-Verlag: New York, NY, USA, 1998.
61. Krasin, F.; Wagner, H. Biological effects of nonionizing electromagnetic radiation. In Encyclopedia of Medical Devices and Instrumentation; Webster, J.G., Ed.; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1988.
62. Polk, C. Biological effects of nonionizing electromagnetic fields. In Handbook of biomedical engineering; Bronzino, J.D., Ed.; J. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1995.
63. Shellock, F.G. Radiofrequency energy-induced heating during MR procedures: a review. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2000, 12, 30-36. (Pubitemid 30437262)
64. Shellock, F.G.; Rothman, B.; Sarti, D. Heating of the scrotum by highfield strength MR imaging. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1990, 154, 1229-1232. (Pubitemid 20179470)
65. Shellock, F.G.; Crues, J.V. Corneal temperature changes associated with high-field MR imaging using a head coil. Radiology 1988, 167, 809-811. (Pubitemid 18130734)
66. Vahlensieck, M. Tattoo-related cutaneous inflammation (burn grade I) in a mid-field MR scanner (letter). Eur. Radiol. 2000, 10, 197. (Pubitemid 30141157)
67. Wagle, W.A.; Smith, M. Tattoo-induced skin burn during MR imaging (letter). Am. J. Roentgenol. 2000, 174, 1795. (Pubitemid 30346767)
68. Kreidstein, M.L.; Giguere, D.; Freiberg, A. MRI interaction with tattoo pigments: case report, pathophysiology, and management. Plast. Reconstr. Surg. 1997, 99, 1717-1720. (Pubitemid 27203605)
69. Bottomley, P.A.; Redington, R.W.; Edelstein, W.A.; Schenck, J.F. Estimating radiofrequency power deposition in body NMR imaging. Magn. Reson. Med. 1985, 2, 336-349. (Pubitemid 15228815)
70. Adair, E.R.; Berglund, L.G. On the thermoregulatory consequences of NMR imaging. Magn. Reson. Imaging 1986, 4, 321-333. (Pubitemid 17172213)
71. Shellock, F.G.; Schaefer, D.J.; Crues, J.V. Alterations in body and skin temperatures caused by MR imaging: is the recommended exposure for radiofrequency radiation too conservatice? Brit. J. Radiol. 1989, 62, 904-909. (Pubitemid 19254198)
72. Van den Berg, C.A.T.; van den Bergen, B.; van de Kamer, J.B.; Raaymakers, B.W.; Kroeze, H.; Bartels, L.W.; Lagendijk, J.J.W. Simultaneous B+1 Homogenization and Specific Absorption Rate Hotspot Suppression Using a Magnetic Resonance Phased Array Transmit Coil. Mag. Res. Med. 2007, 57, 577-586.
73. Liu, F.; Zhao, H.W.; Crozier, S. Calculation of electric fields induced by body and head motion in high-field MRI. J. Magn. Reson. 2003, 161, 99-107.
74. Meltz, M.L. Radiofrequency exposure and mammalian cell toxicity, genotoxicity, and transformation. Biolectrom. Suppl. 2003, 6, S196-S213. (Pubitemid 38622963)
75. Diem, E.; Schwarz, C.; Adlkofer, F.; Jahn, O.; Rudiger, H. Non-thermal DANN breakage by mobile phone radiation (1800 MHz) in human fibroblasts and in transformed GFSH-R17 rat granulosa cells in vitro. Mutat. Res. 2005, 583, 178-183. (Pubitemid 40775914)
76. Nikolova, T.; Czyz, J.; Rolletschek, A.; Blyszczuk, P.; Fuchs, J.; Jovtchev, G. Electromagnetic fields affect transcript levels of apoptosis-related genes in embryonic stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells. FASEB J. 2005, 19, 1686-1693. (Pubitemid 41429530)
77. Speit, G.; Schutz, P.; Hoffmann, H. Genotoxic effects of exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMF) in cultured mammalian cells are not independently reproducible. Mutat. Res. 2007, 626, 42-47. (Pubitemid 44881398)
78. Lantow, M.; Viergutz, T.; Weiss, D.G.; Simkó, M. Comparative study of cell cycle kinetics and induction of apoptosis or necrosis after exposure to radiofrequency radiation in human Mono Mac 6 cells. Radiat. Res. 2006c, 166, 539-543.
79. Caraglia, M.; Marra, M.; Mancinelli, F.; D'Ambrosio, G.; Massa, R.; Giordano, A.; Budillon, A.; Abbruzzese, A.; Bismuto, E. Electromagnetic fields at mobile phone frequency induce apoptosis and inactivation of the multi-chaperone complex in human epidermoid cancer cells. J. Cell. Physiol. 2005, 204, 39-48. (Pubitemid 40934649)
80. Scarfi, M.R.; Fresegna, A.M.; Villani, P.; Pinto, R.; Marino, C.; Sarti, M.; Altavista, P.; Sannino, A.; Lovisolo, G.A. Exposure to radiofrequency radiation (900 MHz, GSM signal) does not affect micronucleus frequency and cell proliferation in human peripheral blood lymphocytes: an interlaboratory study. Radiat. Res. 2006, 165, 655-663. (Pubitemid 43831014)
81. Zeni, O.; Schiavoni, A.; Perrotta, A.; Forigo, D.; Depilano, M.; Scarfi, M.R. Evaluation of genotoxic effects in human leukocytes after in vitro exposure to 1950 MHz UMTS radiofrequency field. Bioelectromagnetics 2008, 29, 177-184.
82. Saunders, R.D.; Kowalczuk, C.I., Beechley, C.V.; Dunford, R. Studies of the induction of dominant lethal and translocations in male mice after chronic exposure to microwave radiation. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. Relat. Stud. Phys. Chem. Med. 1988, 53, 983-992.
83. Lloyd, D.C.; Saunders, R.D.; Moquet, J.E.; Kowalczuk, C.I. Absence of chromosomal damage in human lymphocytes exposed to microwave radiation with hyperthermia. Bioelectromagnetics 1986, 7, 235-237.
84. Muscat, J.E.; Malkin, M.G.; Thompson, S.; Shore, R.E.; Stellman, S.D.; McRee, D.; Neugut, A.I.; Wynder, E.L. Handheld cellular telephone use and risk of brain cancer. JAMA 2000, 284, 3001-3007.
85. Inskip, P.D.; Hatch, E.E.; Stewart, P.A.; Heineman, E.F.; Ziegler, R.G.; Dosemeci, M.; Parry, D.; Rothman, N.; Boice, J.D.; Wilcosky, T.C.; Watson, D.J.; Shapiro, W.R.; Selker, R.G.; Fine, H.A.; Black, P.; Loeffler, J.S., Linet, M.S. Study design for a case-control investigation of cellular telephones and other risk factors for brain tumours in adults. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 1999, 86, 45-52.
86. Hardell, L.; Nasman, A.; Pahlson, A.; Hallquist, A.; Hansson Mild, K. Use of cellular telephones and the risk for brain tumours: a case-control study. Int. J. Oncol. 1999, 15, 113-116.
87. Lonn, S.; Ahlbom, A.; Hall, P.; Feychting, M. Long-term mobile phone use and brain tumour risk. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2005, 161, 526-535.
88. Schüz, J.; Böphler, E.; Berg, G.; Schlehofer, B.; Hettinger, I.; Schlaefer, K.; Wahrendorf, J.; Kunna-Grass, K.; Blettner, M. Cellular phones, cordless phones, and the risk of glioma and meningioma (Interphone study group, Germany). Am. J. Epidemiol. 2006a, 163, 512-520.
89. Elwood, J.M. Epidemiological studies of radio frequency exposures and human cancer. Biolectrom Suppl. 2003, 6, S63-S73.
90. IEE Position Statement. The Possible Harmful Biological Effects of Low Level Electromagnetic Fields of Frequencies up to 300 GHz. 2002; Available online: http://materias.fi.uba.ar/6209/download/IEE2002.pdf (accessed June 5, 2009)
91. Christ, A.; Kuster, N. Differences in RF energy absorption in the heads of adults and children. Bioelectromagnetics 2005, 7, S31-44.
92. Regel, S.J.; Negovetic, S.; Röösli, M.; Berdinas, V.; Schuderer, J.; Huss, A.; Lott, U.; Kuster, N.; Achermann, P. UMTS base station-like exposure, well being and cognitive performance. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 1270-1275.
93. Schaefer, D.J.; Barber, B.J.; Gordon, C.J.; Zielonka, J.; Hecker, J. Thermal effects of magnetic resonance imaging. In Book of abstracts, Society for magnetic resonance in medicine Volume2. Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine: Berkeley, CA, USA, 1985; p. 92
94. Shellock, F.G.; Schaefer, D.J.; Crues, J.V. Evaluation of skin blood flow, body and skin temperatures in man during MR imaging at high levels of RF energy. Magn. Reson. Imaging 1989, 7, 335.
95. Kido, D.K.; Morris, T.W.; Erickson, J.L.; Plewes, D.B.; Simon, J.H. Physiologic changes during high field strength MR imaging. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1987, 148, 1215-1218.
96. Shellock, F.G.; Schaefer, D.J.; Kanal, E. Physiologic responses to MR imaging performed at an SAR level of 6.0 W/Kg. Radiology 1994, 192, 865-868.
97. Shellock, F.G.; Schatz, C.J. Increases in corneal temperature caused by MR imaging of the eye with a dedicated local coil. Radiology 1992, 185, 697-699.
98. International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP): medical magnetic resonance (MR) procedures: Protection of patients. Health Phys. Soc. 2004, 87, 197-216.
99. Shellock, F.G.; Crues, J.V. MR Procedures: biologic effects, safety, and patient care. Radiology 2004, 232, 635-652.
100. Shellock, F.G.; Slimp, G. Severe burn of the finger caused by using a pulse oximeter during MR imaging (letter). Am. J. Roentgenol. 1989, 153, 1105.
101. Shellock, F.G.; Spinazzi, A. MRI safety update 2008: part 1, MRI contrast agents and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008, 191, 1129-1139.
102. Schiffer, I.B.; Schreiber, W.G.; Graf, R.; Schreiber, E.M.; Jung, D.; Rose, D.M.; Hehn, M.; Gebhard, S.; Sagemüller, J.; Spiess, H.W.; Oesch, F.; Thelen, M.; Hengstler, J.G. No influence of magnetic fields on cell cycle progression using conditions relevant for patients during MRI. Bioelectromagnetics 2003, 24, 241-250.
103. Magin, R.L.; Lee, J.K.; Klintsova, A.; Carnes, K.I.; Dunn, F. Biological Effects of Long-Duration, High-Field (4 T) MRI on Growth and Development in the Mouse. J. Mag. Res. Imaging 2000, 12, 140-149.
104. Ali, M.A. Magnetic resonance imaging and associated alteration in some biophysical properties of blood. Rom. J. Biophys. 2007, 17, 277-286.
105. Karpowicz, J.; Hietanen, M.; Gryz, K. Occupational risk from static magnetic fields of MRI scanners. Environmentalist 2007, 27, 533-538.
106. Directive 2004/40/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical agents (electromagnetic fields). Official Journal of the European Union L 159 of 30 April 2004 (and corrigenda L 184 of 24 May 2004). Available online: http://www.hse.gov.uk/radiation/ nonionising/l184emf.pdf (accessed June 21, 2005).
107. Zaremba, L.A. Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff: Criteria for Significant Risk Investigations of Magnetic Resonance Diagnostic Devices. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration: Silver Spring, MD, USA, 2003. Available online: http://www.fda.gov/ cdrh/ode/guidance/793.pdf (accessed December 2003).
108. IAPO. Policy Statement on Patient Involvement; IAPO: London, UK, 2005. Available online: http://www.patientsorganizations.org/ (accessed June 2005).
109. Welch, H.G.; Schwartz, L.; Woloshin, S. What's making us sick is an epidemic of diagnoses. New York Times, January 2, 2007.