Principles of Drug Dosing in Critically Ill Patients

Critical Care Medicine: Principles of Diagnosis and Management in the Adult

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 343-376

  Devlin, John W ^a,b,c   Barletta, Jeffrey F ^d,e  

^a NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b TUFTS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c TUFTS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d FERRIS STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e Critical Care   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 67649325467     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-032304841-5.50023-6     Document Type: Chapter

References (213)

1. Cullen DJ, Sweitzer BJ, Bates DW, et al. Preventable adverse drug events in hospitalized patients: A comparative study of intensive care and general care units. Crit Care Med 1997, 25:1289-1297.
2. Power BM, Forbes AM, van Heerden PV, et al. Pharmacokinetics of drugs used in critically ill adults. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998, 34:25-56.
3. Belzberg H, Zhu J, Cornwell EE, et al. Imipenem levels are not predictable in the critically ill patient. J Trauma 2004, 56:111-117.
4. Wagner BK, O'Hara DA Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sedatives and analgesics in the treatment of agitated critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997, 33:426-453.
5. Johnston AJ, Steiner LA, O'Connell M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of dopamine and norepinephrine in critically ill head-injured patients. Intensive Care Med 2004, 30:45-50.
6. Bodenham A, Shelly MP, Park GR The altered pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs commonly used in critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1988, 14:347-373.
7. Cariou A, Chiche JD, Charpentier J, et al. The era of genomics: Impact on sepsis clinical trial design. Crit Care Med 2002, 30(5 Suppl):S341-S348.
8. Bauer LA Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, ed 6 2005, 51-73. McGraw-Hill, New York. J.T. DiPiro, R.L. Talbert, G.C. Yee (Eds.).
9. Bauer TM, Ritz R, Haberthur C, et al. Prolonged sedation due to accumulation of conjugated metabolites of midazolam. Lancet 1995, 346:145-147.
10. Ritz MA, Fraser R, Tam W, et al. Impacts and patterns of disturbed gastrointestinal function in critically ill patients. Am J Gastroenterol 2000, 95:3044-3052.
11. Ceppa EP, Fuh KC, Bulkley GB Mesenteric hemodynamic response to circulatory shock. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003, 9:127-132.
12. Schmidt H, Martindale R The gastrointestinal tract in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2001, 4:547-551.
13. Forrest A, Nix DE, Ballow CH, et al. Pharmacodynamics of intravenous ciprofloxacin in seriously ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37:1073-1081.
14. Dasta JF, Armstrong DK Variability in aminoglycoside pharmacokinetics in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1988, 16:327-330.
15. Boucher BA, Kuhl DA, Fabian TC, et al. Effect of neurotrauma on hepatic drug clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991, 50(5 Pt 1):487-497.
16. Rodighiero V Effects of liver disease on pharmacokinetics: An update. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999, 37:399-431.
17. Drug interactions. Med Lett Drugs Therap 2003, 45:44-48.
18. Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, et al. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients: A multinational, multicenter study. JAMA 2005, 294:813-818.
19. Mueller BA, Pasko DA, Sowinski KM Higher renal replacement therapy dose delivery influences on drug therapy. Artif Organs 2003, 27:808-814.
20. McKinnon PS, Davis SL Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic issues in the treatment of bacterial infectious diseases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004, 23:271-288.
21. Rodvold KA Pharmacodynamics of antiinfective therapy: Taking what we know to the patient's bedside. Pharmacotherapy 2001, 21(11 Pt 2):319S-330S.
22. Craig WA Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters: Rationale for antibacterial dosing of mice and men. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 26:1-10.
23. Turnidge JD The pharmacodynamics of beta-lactams. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 27:10-22.
24. Ambrose PG, Quintiliani R, Nightingale CH, et al. Continuous versus intermittent infusion of cefuroxime for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia. Infect Dis Clin Pract 1998, 7:463-470.
25. Georges B, Conil JM, Cougot P, et al. Cefepime in critically ill patients: Continuous infusion vs. an intermittent dosing regimen. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005, 43:360-369.
26. Grant EM, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP, et al. Clinical efficacy and pharmacoeconomics of a continuous-infusion piperacillin-tazobactam program in a large community teaching hospital. Pharmacotherapy 2002, 22:471-483.
27. Lorente L, Lorenzo L, Martin MM, et al. Meropenem by continuous versus intermittent infusion in ventilator-associated pneumonia due to gram-negative bacilli. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40:219-223.
28. Nicolau DP, McNabb J, Lacy MK, et al. Continuous versus intermittent administration of ceftazidime in intensive care unit patients with nosocomial pneumonia. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2001, 17:497-504.
29. Krueger WA, Bulitta J, Kinzig-Schippers M, et al. Evaluation by Monte Carlo simulation of the pharmacokinetics of two doses of meropenem administered intermittently or as a continuous infusion in healthy volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49:1881-1889.
30. Kuti JL, Dandekar PK, Nightingale CH, et al. Use of Monte Carlo simulation to design an optimized pharmacodynamic dosing strategy for meropenem. J Clin Pharmacol 2003, 43:1116-1123.
31. Tam VH, Louie A, Lomaestro BM, et al. Integration of population pharmacokinetics, a pharmacodynamic target, and microbiologic surveillance data to generate a rational empiric dosing strategy for cefepime against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pharmacotherapy 2003, 23:291-295.
32. Rybak MJ The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42(Suppl 1):S35-S39.
33. Lamer C, de Beco V, Soler P, et al. Analysis of vancomycin entry into pulmonary lining fluid by bronchoalveolar lavage in critically ill patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993, 37:281-286.
34. Karam CM, McKinnon PS, Neuhauser MM, et al. Outcome assessment of minimizing vancomycin monitoring and dosing adjustments. Pharmacotherapy 1999, 19:257-266.
35. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005, 171:388-416.
36. Moore RD, Smith CR, Lietman PS Association of aminoglycoside plasma levels with therapeutic outcome in gram-negative pneumonia. Am J Med 1984, 77:657-662.
37. Moore RD, Smith CR, Lietman PS The association of aminoglycoside plasma levels with mortality in patients with gram-negative bacteremia. J Infect Dis 1984, 149:443-448.
38. Moore RD, Lietman PS, Smith CR Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: Importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration. J Infect Dis 1987, 155:93-99.
39. Kashuba AD, Nafziger AN, Drusano GL, et al. Optimizing aminoglycoside therapy for nosocomial pneumonia caused by gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43:623-629.
40. Rotschafer JC, Rybak MJ Single daily dosing of aminoglycosides: A commentary. Ann Pharmacother 1994, 28:797-801.
41. Nicolau DP, Freeman CD, Belliveau PP, et al. Experience with a once-daily aminoglycoside program administered to 2,184 adult patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995, 39:650-655.
42. Rybak MJ, Abate BJ, Kang SL, et al. Prospective evaluation of the effect of an aminoglycoside dosing regimen on rates of observed nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43:1549-1555.
43. Murry KR, McKinnon PS, Mitrzyk B, et al. Pharmacodynamic characterization of nephrotoxicity associated with once-daily aminoglycoside. Pharmacotherapy 1999, 19:1252-1260.
44. Olsen KM, Rudis MI, Rebuck JA, et al. Effect of once-daily dosing vs. multiple daily dosing of tobramycin on enzyme markers of nephrotoxicity. Crit Care Med 2004, 32:1678-1682.
45. Micek ST, Heuring TJ, Hollands JM, et al. Optimizing antibiotic treatment for ventilator-associated pneumonia. Pharmacotherapy 2006, 26:204-213.
46. Barletta JF, Johnson SB, Nix DE, et al. Population pharmacokinetics of aminoglycosides in critically ill trauma patients on once-daily regimens. J Trauma 2000, 49:869-872.
47. Tholl DA, Shikuma LR, Miller TQ, et al. Physiologic response of stress and aminoglycoside clearance in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1993, 21:248-251.
48. Preston SL, Drusano GL, Berman AL, et al. Pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin: A new paradigm for early clinical trials. JAMA 1998, 279:125-129.
49. Cazzola M, Matera MG, Donnarumma G, et al. Pharmacodynamics of levofloxacin in patients with acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis. Chest 2005, 128:2093-2098.
50. Forrest A, Chodosh S, Amantea MA, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of oral grepafloxacin in patients with acute bacterial exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1997, 40(Suppl A):45-57.
51. Lister PD Pharmacodynamics of gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model: Impact of area under the curve/MIC ratios on eradication. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002, 46:69-74.
52. Lister PD, Sanders CC Pharmacodynamics of trovafloxacin, ofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro pharmacokinetic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1999, 43:1118-1123.
53. Zhanel GG, Walters M, Laing N, et al. In vitro pharmacodynamic modelling simulating free serum concentrations of fluoroquinolones against multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001, 47:435-440.
54. Ambrose PG, Grasela DM, Grasela TH, et al. Pharmacodynamics of fluoroquinolones against Streptococcus pneumoniae in patients with community-acquired respiratory tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45:2793-2797.
55. Thomas JK, Forrest A, Bhavnani SM, et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of factors associated with the development of bacterial resistance in acutely ill patients during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:521-527.
56. Andes D Clinical pharmacodynamics of antifungals. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003, 17:635-649.
57. Theuretzbacher U Pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of echinocandins. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004, 23:805-812.
58. Winter WE, Tozer TT Phenytoin. Applied Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 2006, 463-490. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. M.E. Burton, L.M. Shaw, J.J. Schentag (Eds.).
59. Boucher BA, Rodman JH, Jaresko GS, et al. Phenytoin pharmacokinetics in critically ill trauma patients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988, 44:675-683.
60. Jacobi J, Fraser GL, Coursin DB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the sustained use of sedatives and analgesics in the critically ill adult. Crit Care Med 2002, 30:119-141.
61. Shelly MP, Mendel L, Park GR Failure of critically ill patients to metabolise midazolam. Anaesthesia 1987, 42:619-626.
62. Armstrong PJ, Bersten A Normeperidine toxicity. Anesth Analg 1986, 65:536-538.
63. Milne RW, Nation RL, Somogyi AA, et al. The influence of renal function on the renal clearance of morphine and its glucuronide metabolites in intensive-care patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992, 34:53-59.
64. Terra SG, Washam JB, Dunham GD, et al. Therapeutic range of digoxin's efficacy in heart failure: What is the evidence?. Pharmacotherapy 1999, 19:1123-1126.
65. Bauman JL, Dekker-Schoen M Arrhythmias. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, ed 6 2005, 321-356. McGraw-Hill, New York. J.T. DiPiro, R.L. Talbert, G.C. Yee (Eds.).
66. Tsikouris JP, Cox CD A review of class III antiarrhythmic agents for atrial fibrillation: Maintenance of normal sinus rhythm. Pharmacotherapy 2001, 21:1514-1529.
67. Hirsh J, Raschke R Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: The Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004, 126(3 Suppl):188S-203S.
68. Spinler SA, Wittkowsky AK, Nutescu EA, et al. Anticoagulation monitoring, part 2: Unfractionated heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin. Ann Pharmacother 2005, 39:1275-1285.
69. Srinivasa V, Gilbertson LI, Bhavani-Shankar K Thromboelastography: Where is it and where is it heading?. Int Anesthesiol Clin 2001, 39:35-49.
70. Luddington RJ Thrombelastography/thromboelastometry. Clin Lab Haematol 2005, 27:81-90.
71. Salooja N, Perry DJ Thrombelastography. Blood Coagul Fibrinol 2001, 12:327-337.
72. Laposata M, Green D, Van Cott EM, et al. College of American Pathologists Conference XXXI on laboratory monitoring of anticoagulant therapy: The clinical use and laboratory monitoring of low-molecular-weight heparin, danaparoid, hirudin, and related compounds, and argatroban. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1998, 122:799-807.
73. Mayr AJ, Dunser M, Jochberger S, et al. Antifactor Xa activity in intensive care patients receiving thromboembolic prophylaxis with standard doses of enoxaparin. Thromb Res 2002, 105:201-204.
74. Chowdhury MH, Tunkel AR Antibacterial agents in infections of the central nervous system. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2000, 14:391-408.
75. Lutsar I, McCracken GH, Friedland IR Antibiotic pharmacodynamics in cerebrospinal fluid. Clin Infect Dis 1998, 27:1117-1127.
76. Schmidt T, Tauber MG Pharmacodynamics of antibiotics in the therapy of meningitis: Infection model observations. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993, 31(Suppl D):61-70.
77. Buchler M, Malfertheiner P, Friess H, et al. Human pancreatic tissue concentration of bactericidal antibiotics. Gastroenterology 1992, 103:1902-1908.
78. Shrikhande S, Friess H, Issenegger C, et al. Fluconazole penetration into the pancreas. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000, 44:2569-2571.
79. Spector R, Park GD, Johnson GF, et al. Therapeutic drug monitoring. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988, 43:345-353.
80. Mutlu GM, Mutlu EA, Factor P GI complications in patients receiving mechanical ventilation. Chest 2001, 119:1222-1241.
81. Schmidt T, Martindale R The gastrointestinal tract in critical illness. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2001, 4:547-551.
82. Martin LF, Booth FV, Karlstadt RG, et al. Continuous intravenous cimetidine decreases stress-related upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage without promoting pneumonia. Crit Care Med 1993, 21:19-30.
83. Dive A, Moulart M, Jonard P, et al. Gastroduodenal motility in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: A manometric study. Crit Care Med 1994, 22:441-447.
84. Laing RB, Mackenzie AR, Shaw H, et al. The effect of intravenous-to-oral switch guidelines on the use of parenteral antimicrobials in medical wards. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998, 42:107-111.
85. Kanji S, McKinnon PS, Barletta JF, et al. Bioavailability of gatifloxacin by gastric tube administration with and without concomitant enteral feeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:1347-1352.
86. Madaras-Kelly KJ, Larsson AJ, Rotschafer JC A pharmacodynamic evaluation of ciprofloxacin and ofloxacin against two strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996, 37:703-710.
87. Engle KK, Hannawa TE Techniques for administering oral medications to critical care patients receiving continuous enteral nutrition. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1999, 56:1441-1444.
88. Mimoz O, Binter V, Jacolot A, et al. Pharmacokinetics and absolute bioavailability of ciprofloxacin administered through a nasogastric tube with continuous enteral feeding to critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med 1998, 24:1047-1051.
89. Rosemurgy AS, Markowsky S, Goode SE, et al. Bioavailability of fluconazole in surgical intensive care unit patients: A study comparing routes of administration. J Trauma 1995, 39:445-447.
90. Haas CE, Nelsen JL, Raghavendran K, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of enoxaparin in multiple trauma patients. J Trauma 2005, 59:1336-1343.
91. Dorffler-Melly J, deJonge E, Pont AC, et al. Bioavailability of subcutaneous low-molecular-weight heparin to patients on vasopressors. Lancet 2002, 359:849-850.
92. Priglinger U, Delle Karth G, Geppert A, et al. Prophylactic anticoagulation with enoxaparin: Is the subcutaneous route appropriate in the critically ill?. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:1405-1409.
93. Levine MN, Planes A, Hirsh J, et al. The relationship between antifactor Xa level and clinical outcome in patients receiving enoxaparine low molecular weight heparin to prevent deep vein thrombosis after hip replacement. Thromb Haemost 1989, 62:940-944.
94. Summer W, Elston R, Tharpe L, et al. Aerosol bronchodilator delivery methods: Relative impact on pulmonary function and cost of respiratory care. Arch Intern Med 1989, 149:618-623.
95. Fink JB, Dhand R, Duarte AG, et al. Aerosol delivery from a metered-dose inhaler during mechanical ventilation: An in vitro model. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996, 154(2 Pt 1):382-387.
96. Fuller HD, Dolovich MB, Posmituck G, et al. Pressurized aerosol versus jet aerosol delivery to mechanically ventilated patients: comparison of dose to the lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990, 141:440-444.
97. Palmer LB, Smaldone GC, Simon SR, et al. Aerosolized antibiotics in mechanically ventilated patients: delivery and response. Crit Care Med 1998, 26:31-39.
98. Wood GC, Boucher BA, Croce MA, et al. Aerosolized ceftazidime for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia and drug effects on the proinflammatory response in critically ill trauma patients. Pharmacotherapy 2002, 22:972-982.
99. Hamer DH Treatment of nosocomial pneumonia and tracheobronchitis caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa with aerosolized colistin. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 162:328-330.
100. Weinshilboum R Inheritance and drug response. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:529-537.
101. Furuta T, Ohashi K, Kosuge K, et al. CYP2C19 genotype status and effect of omeprazole on intragastric pH in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999, 65:552-561.
102. Leontiadis GI, Sharma VK, Howden CW Systematic review and meta-analysis: Enhanced efficacy of proton-pump inhibitor therapy for peptic ulcer bleeding in Asia-a post hoc analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005, 21:1055-1061.
103. Zineh I, Pebanco GD, Aquilante CL, et al. Discordance between availability of pharmacogenetics studies and pharmacogenetics-based prescribing information for the top 200 drugs. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40:639-644.
104. Robert S, Zarowitz BJ Is there a reliable index of glomerular filtration rate in critically ill patients?. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1991, 25:169-178.
105. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976, 16:31-41.
106. Martin C, Alaya M, Bras J, et al. Assessment of creatinine clearance in intensive care patients. Crit Care Med 1990, 18:1224-1226.
107. Robert S, Zarowitz BJ, Peterson EL, et al. Predictability of creatinine clearance estimates in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1993, 21:1487-1495.
108. Pesola GR, Akhavan I, Madu A, et al. Prediction equation estimates of creatinine clearance in the intensive care unit. Intensive Care Med 1993, 19:39-43.
109. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: A new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999, 130:461-470.
110. Levey AS, Greene T, Kusek JW, et al. A simplified equation to predict glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000, 11:155A.
111. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic kidney disease Evaluation, classification, and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002, 39(2 Suppl 1):S1-S266.
112. Cherry RA, Eachempati SR, Hydo L, et al. Accuracy of short-duration creatinine clearance determinations in predicting 24-hour creatinine clearance in critically ill and injured patients. J Trauma 2002, 53:267-271.
113. Baumann TJ, Staddon JE, Horst HM, et al. Minimum urine collection periods for accurate determination of creatinine clearance in critically ill patients. Clin Pharm 1987, 6:393-398.
114. Bugge JF Influence of renal replacement therapy on pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2004, 18:175-187.
115. Matzke GR, Comstock TJ Influence of renal function and dialysis on drug disposition. Applied Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics 2006, 187-212. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia. M.E. Burton, L.M. Shaw, J.J. Schentag (Eds.).
116. Golper TA, Marx MA Drug dosing adjustments during continuous renal replacement therapies. Kidney Int Suppl 1998, 66:S165-S168.
117. Brunet S, Leblanc M, Geadah D, et al. Diffusive and convective solute clearances during continuous renal replacement therapy at various dialysate and ultrafiltration flow rates. Am J Kidney Dis 1999, 34:486-492.
118. Joy MS, Matzke GR, Armstrong DK, et al. A primer on continuous renal replacement therapy for critically ill patients. Ann Pharmacother 1998, 32:362-375.
119. Joy MS, Matzke GR, Frye RF, et al. Determinants of vancomycin clearance by continuous venovenous hemofiltration and continuous venovenous hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 1998, 31:1019-1027.
120. Bugge JF Pharmacokinetics and drug dosing adjustments during continuous venovenous hemofiltration or hemodiafiltration in critically ill patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2001, 45:929-934.
121. Reetze-Bonorden P, Bohler J, Keller E Drug dosage in patients during continuous renal replacement therapy: Pharmacokinetic and therapeutic considerations. Clin Pharmacokinet 1993, 24:362-379.
122. Frye RF, Matzke GR Drug therapy individualization for patients with renal insufficiency. Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach, ed 6 2005, 919-935. McGraw-Hill, New York. J.T. DiPiro, R.L. Talbert, G.C. Yee (Eds.).
123. Delco F, Tchambaz L, Schlienger R, et al. Dose adjustment in patients with liver disease. Drug Saf 2005, 28:529-545.
124. Pieracci FM, Barie PS, Pomp A Critical care of the bariatric patient. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:1796-1804.
125. Nasraway SA, Albert M, Donnelly AM, et al. Morbid obesity is an independent determinant of death among surgical critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:964-970.
126. World Health Organization Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity: Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic 1998, World Health Organization, Geneva.
127. Devine BJ Case number 25: Gentamicin therapy. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1974, 8:650-655.
128. Erstad BL Dosing of medications in morbidly obese patients in the intensive care unit setting. Intensive Care Med 2004, 30:18-32.
129. Blouin RA, Warren GW Pharmacokinetic considerations in obesity. J Pharm Sci 1999, 88:1-7.
130. Cheymol G Effects of obesity on pharmacokinetics implications for drug therapy. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000, 39:215-231.
131. Casati A, Putzu M Anesthesia in the obese patient: Pharmacokinetic considerations. J Clin Anesth 2005, 17:134-145.
132. Erstad BL Which weight for weight-based dosage regimens in obese patients?. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2002, 59:2105-2110.
133. Shibutani K, Inchiosa MA, Sawada K, et al. Accuracy of pharmacokinetic models for predicting plasma fentanyl concentrations in lean and obese surgical patients: Derivation of dosing weight ("pharmacokinetic mass"). Anesthesiology 2004, 101:603-613.
134. Shibutani K, Inchiosa MA, Sawada K, et al. Pharmacokinetic mass of fentanyl for postoperative analgesia in lean and obese patients. Br J Anaesth 2005, 95:377-383.
135. Egan TD, Huizinga B, Gupta SK, et al. Remifentanil pharmacokinetics in obese versus lean patients. Anesthesiology 1998, 89:562-573.
136. Schwartz AE, Matteo RS, Ornstein E, et al. Pharmacokinetics of sufentanil in obese patients. Anesth Analg 1991, 73:790-793.
137. Brunette DD Resuscitation of the morbidly obese patient. Am J Emerg Med 2004, 22:40-47.
138. Greenblatt DJ, Abernethy DR, Locniskar A, et al. Effect of age, gender, and obesity on midazolam kinetics. Anesthesiology 1984, 61:27-35.
139. Servin F, Farinotti R, Haberer JP, et al. Propofol infusion for maintenance of anesthesia in morbidly obese patients receiving nitrous oxide: A clinical and pharmacokinetic study. Anesthesiology 1993, 78:657-665.
140. Leykin Y, Pellis T, Lucca M, et al. The effects of cisatracurium on morbidly obese women. Anesth Analg 2004, 99:1090-1094.
141. Leykin Y, Pellis T, Lucca M, et al. The pharmacodynamic effects of rocuronium when dosed according to real body weight or ideal body weight in morbidly obese patients. Anesth Analg 2004, 99:1086-1089.
142. Schwartz AE, Matteo RS, Ornstein E, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of vecuronium in the obese surgical patient. Anesth Analg 1992, 74:515-518.
143. Varin F, Ducharme J, Theoret Y, et al. Influence of extreme obesity on the body disposition and neuromuscular blocking effect of atracurium. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1990, 48:18-25.
144. Bentley JB, Borel JD, Vaughan RW, et al. Weight, pseudocholinesterase activity, and succinylcholine requirement. Anesthesiology 1982, 57:48-49.
145. Lemmens HJ, Brodsky JB The dose of succinylcholine in morbid obesity. Anesth Analg 2006, 102:438-442.
146. Abernethy DR, Greenblatt DJ Phenytoin disposition in obesity: Determination of loading dose. Arch Neurol 1985, 42:468-471.
147. Cheymol G, Poirier JM, Carrupt PA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of beta-adrenoceptor blockers in obese and normal volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997, 43:563-570.
148. Wojcicki J, Jaroszynska M, Drozdzik M, et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of propranolol and atenolol in normolipaemic and hyperlipidaemic obese subjects. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2003, 24:211-218.
149. Cheymol G, Poirier JM, Barre J, et al. Comparative pharmacokinetics of intravenous propranolol in obese and normal volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 1987, 27:874-879.
150. Abernethy DR, Greenblatt DJ, Smith TW Digoxin disposition in obesity: Clinical pharmacokinetic investigation. Am Heart J 1981, 102:740-744.
151. Raschke RA, Reilly BM, Guidry JR, et al. The weight-based heparin dosing nomogram compared with a "standard care" nomogram: A randomized controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1993, 119:874-881.
152. Ellison MJ, Sawyer WT, Mills TC Calculation of heparin dosage in a morbidly obese woman. Clin Pharm 1989, 8:65-68.
153. Spruill WJ, Wade WE, Huckaby WG, et al. Achievement of anticoagulation by using a weight-based heparin dosing protocol for obese and nonobese patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2001, 58:2143-2146.
154. Yee WP, Norton LL Optimal weight base for a weight-based heparin dosing protocol. Am J Health Syst Pharm 1998, 55:159-162.
155. Al-Yaseen E, Wells PS, Anderson J, et al. The safety of dosing dalteparin based on actual body weight for the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism in obese patients. J Thromb Haemost 2005, 3:100-102.
156. Hainer JW, Barrett JS, Assaid CA, et al. Dosing in heavy-weight/obese patients with the LMWH, tinzaparin: A pharmacodynamic study. Thromb Haemost 2002, 87:817-823.
157. Sanderink GJ, Le Liboux A, Jariwala N, et al. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of enoxaparin in obese volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002, 72:308-318.
158. Smith J, Canton EM Weight-based administration of dalteparin in obese patients. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2003, 60:683-687.
159. Wilson SJ, Wilbur K, Burton E, et al. Effect of patient weight on the anticoagulant response to adjusted therapeutic dosage of low-molecular-weight heparin for the treatment of venous thromboembolism. Haemostasis 2001, 31:42-48.
160. Yee JY, Duffull SB The effect of body weight on dalteparin pharmacokinetics: A preliminary study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000, 56:293-297.
161. Spinler SA, Inverso SM, Cohen M, et al. Safety and efficacy of unfractionated heparin versus enoxaparin in patients who are obese and patients with severe renal impairment: Analysis from the ESSENCE and TIMI 11B studies. Am Heart J 2003, 146:33-41.
162. Geerts W, Selby R Prevention of venous thromboembolism in the ICU. Chest 2003, 124(6 Suppl):357S-363S.
163. Scholten DJ, Hoedema RM, Scholten SE A comparison of two different prophylactic dose regimens of low molecular weight heparin in bariatric surgery. Obes Surg 2002, 12:19-24.
164. Bearden DT, Rodvold KA Dosage adjustments for antibacterials in obese patients: Applying clinical pharmacokinetics. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000, 38:415-426.
165. Wurtz R, Itokazu G, Rodvold K Antimicrobial dosing in obese patients. Clin Infect Dis 1997, 25:112-118.
166. Yuk J, Nightingale CH, Sweeney K, et al. Pharmacokinetics of nafcillin in obesity. J Infect Dis 1988, 157:1088-1089.
167. Yost RL, Derendorf H Disposition of cefotaxime and its desacetyl metabolite in morbidly obese male and female subjects. Ther Drug Monit 1986, 8:189-194.
168. Allard S, Kinzig M, Boivin G, et al. Intravenous ciprofloxacin disposition in obesity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993, 54:368-373.
169. Caldwell JB, Nilsen AK Intravenous ciprofloxacin dosing in a morbidly obese patient. Ann Pharmacother 1994, 28:806.
170. Stein GE, Schooley SL, Peloquin CA, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of linezolid in obese patients with cellulitis. Ann Pharmacother 2005, 39:427-432.
171. Dunn TE, Ludwig EA, Slaughter RL, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of methylprednisolone in obesity. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991, 49:536-549.
172. Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, et al. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury: Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA 1997, 277:1597-1604.
173. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:699-709.
174. Macias WL, Dhainaut JF, Yan SC, et al. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in patients with severe sepsis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2002, 72:391-402.
175. Levy H, Small D, Heiselman DE, et al. Obesity does not alter the pharmacokinetics of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in severe sepsis. Ann Pharmacother 2005, 39:262-267.
176. Somme D, Maillet JM, Gisselbrecht M, et al. Critically ill old and the oldest-old patients in intensive care: Short- and long-term outcomes. Intensive Care Med 2003, 29:2137-2143.
177. Montamat SC, Cusack BJ, Vestal RE Management of drug therapy in the elderly. N Engl J Med 1989, 321:303-309.
178. Lesar TS, Lomaestro BM, Pohl H Medication-prescribing errors in a teaching hospital: A 9-year experience. Arch Intern Med 1997, 157:1569-1576.
179. FDA Guideline for the study of drugs likely to be used in the elderly 1989, 16. Food and Drug Admininstration. Center for Surgical Evaluation and Research, Rockville, Md.
180. Novak LP Aging, total body potassium, fat-free mass, and cell mass in males and females between ages 18 and 85 years. J Gerontol 1972, 27:438-443.
181. Greenblatt DJ, Harmatz JS, Shader RI Clinical pharmacokinetics of anxiolytics and hypnotics in the elderly: Therapeutic considerations (part II). Clin Pharmacokinet 1991, 21:262-273.
182. Sokoll LJ, Russell RM, Sadowski JA, et al. Establishment of creatinine clearance reference values for older women. Clin Chem 1994, 40:2276-2281.
183. Scarpace PJ, Tumer N, Mader SL Beta-adrenergic function in aging: Basic mechanisms and clinical implications. Drugs Aging 1991, 1:116-129.
184. Stolarek I, Scott PJ, Caird FI Physiological changes due to age: Implications for cardiovascular drug therapy. Drugs Aging 1991, 1:467-476.
185. 1997-1999 Emergency Cardiovascular Care Programs, Advanced Cardiac Life Support 1997, American Heart Association, Chicago.
186. Campbell NR, Hull RD, Brant R, et al. Aging and heparin-related bleeding. Arch Intern Med 1996, 156:857-860.
187. Redwood M, Taylor C, Bain BJ, et al. The association of age with dosage requirement for warfarin. Age Ageing 1991, 20:217-220.
188. Alexander SL, Ernst FR Use of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in older patients with severe sepsis. Pharmacotherapy 2006, 26:533-538.
189. Anderson GD Pregnancy-induced changes in pharmacokinetics: A mechanistic-based approach. Clin Pharmacokinet 2005, 44:989-1008.
190. Loebstein R, Koren G Clinical relevance of therapeutic drug monitoring during pregnancy. Ther Drug Monit 2002, 24:15-22.
191. Bates SM, Ginsberg JS How we manage venous thromboembolism during pregnancy. Blood 2002, 100:3470-3478.
192. Ensom MH, Stephenson MD Pharmacokinetics of low molecular weight heparin and unfractionated heparin in pregnancy. J Soc Gynecol Invest 2004, 11:377-383.
193. Koren G, Pastuszak A, Ito S Drugs in pregnancy. N Engl J Med 1998, 338:1128-1137.
194. Weinbren MJ Pharmacokinetics of antibiotics in burn patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 1999, 44:319-327.
195. Zaske DE, Sawchuk RJ, Gerding DN, et al. Increased dosage requirements of gentamicin in burn patients. J Trauma 1976, 16:824-828.
196. Hoey LL, Tschida SJ, Rotschafer JC, et al. Wide variation in single, daily-dose aminoglycoside pharmacokinetics in patients with burn injuries. J Burn Care Rehab 1997, 18:116-124.
197. Rybak MJ, Albrecht LM, Berman JR, et al. Vancomycin pharmacokinetics in burn patients and intravenous drug abusers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1990, 34:792-795.
198. Boucher BA, King SR, Wandschneider HL, et al. Fluconazole pharmacokinetics in burn patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42:930-933.
199. Bonate PL Pathophysiology and pharmacokinetics following burn injury. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990, 18:118-130.
200. Pickerill KE, Paladino JA, Schentag JJ Comparison of the fluoroquinolones based on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters. Pharmacotherapy 2000, 20:417-428.
201. Rebuck JA, Fish DN, Abraham E Pharmacokinetics of intravenous and oral
202. Jelliffe RW Creatinine clearance: Bedside estimate. Ann Intern Med 1973, 79:604-605. (Letter).
203. Nix DE, Erstad BL, Nakazato PZ, et al. Estimation of creatinine clearance in end-stage liver disease. Ann Pharmacother 2006, 40:900-908.
204. Salazar DE, Corcoran GB Predicting creatinine clearance and renal drug clearance in obese patients from estimated fat-free body mass. Am J Med 1988, 84:1053-1060.
205. Magee LA, Cham C, Waterman EJ, et al. Hydralazine for treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy: Meta-analysis. BMJ 2003, 327:955-960.
206. Brater DC Drug Use in Renal Disease 1983, ADIS Health Science Press, Balgowlah, Australia.
207. Jelliffe R Estimation of creatinine clearance in patients with unstable renal function, without a urine specimen. Am J Nephrol 2002, 22:320-324.
208. DuBois D, DuBois EF Clinical calorimetry. Tenth paper: A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 1916, 17:863.
209. James WP Research on Obesity 1976, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London.
210. Mosteller RD Simplified calculation of body-surface area. N Engl J Med 1987, 317:1098.
211. Robinson JD, Lupkiewicz SM, Palenik L, et al. Determination of ideal body weight for drug dosage calculations. Am J Hosp Pharm 1983, 40:1016-1019.
212. Devlin JW, Zarowitz BJ Alterations in drug disposition in the elderly. Textbook of Critical Care 2000, 991-1000. Saunders, Philadelphia. A. Grenvik, S.M. Ayres, P.R. Holbrook (Eds.).
213. Bohler J, Donauer J, Keller F Pharmacokinetic principles during continuous renal replacement therapy: drugs and dosage. Kidney Int Suppl 1999, 72:S24-S28.