Lidar studies of particulates in the UTLS region at a tropical station over the Indian subcontinent

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Volumn 114, Issue 8, 2009, Pages

  Thampi, Bijoy V ^a   Sunilkumar, S V ^a   Parameswaran, K ^a  

^a INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION   (India)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACKSCATTERING; CLOUDS; OPTICAL RADAR; POLARIZATION; RECORDING INSTRUMENTS; SULFUR COMPOUNDS; TROPOSPHERE;

BACKSCATTER COEFFICIENTS; CIRRUS CLOUDS; CONVECTIVE ACTIVITY; CONVECTIVE AVAILABLE POTENTIAL ENERGIES; DEPOLARIZATION RATIO; DUAL-POLARIZATION; GOOD CORRELATIONS; ICE PARTICLES; LIDAR OBSERVATION; LOWER STRATOSPHERE; MASS FLUX; MESOSPHERE-STRATOSPHERE-TROPOSPHERE RADARS; MICROPHYSICAL PROPERTY; NON-SPHERICAL; NONSPHERICAL PARTICLE; OUTGOING LONGWAVE RADIATION; PARTICULATE MATTER; QUIESCENT PERIOD; REPRESENTATIVE INDICES; SEASONAL VARIATION; SUMMER MONSOON; TROPICAL STATIONS; UPPER TROPOSPHERE; VERTICAL TRANSPORTS; VERTICAL WIND; WEAK CORRELATION;

ATMOSPHERICS;

AIRFLOW; ATMOSPHERIC CONVECTION; BACKSCATTER; CIRRUS; CLOUD MICROPHYSICS; LIDAR; LONGWAVE RADIATION; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLARIZATION; POTENTIAL ENERGY; RADAR; SEASONAL VARIATION; STRATOSPHERE; TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT; TROPOPAUSE; TROPOSPHERE;

ASIA; EURASIA; GADANKI; INDIA; SOUTH ASIA; TAMIL NADU;

EID: 66949129016     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2008JD010556     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Bames, J. E., and D. J. Hofmann (1997), Lidar measurements of stratospheric aerosol over Mauna Loa, Geophys. Res. Lett, 24, 1923-1926, doi:10.1029/97GL01943.
2. Bames, J. E., and D. J. Hofmann (2001), Variability in the stratospheric background aerosol over Mauna Loa observatory, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2895-2898, doi:10.1029/2001GL013127.
3. Bauman, J. J., P. B. Russell, M. A. Geller, and P. Hamill (2003), A stratospheric aerosol climatology from SAGE II and CLAES measurements: 2. Results and comparisons, 1984-1999, J Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 4383, doi:10.1029/2002JD002993.
4. Bodhaine, B. A., B. N. Wood, E. G. Dutton, and J. R. Slusser (1999), On Rayleigh optical depth calculations, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 16, 1854-1861, doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1999)016<1854:ORODC>2.0. CO;2.
5. Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M., et al. (1999), CARIBIC civil aircraft for global measurement of trace gases and aerosols in the tropopause region, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol, 16, 1373-1383, doi:10.1175/ 1520-0426(1999) 016<1373:CCAFGM>2.0.CO;2.
6. Brenninkmeijer, C. A. M., et al. (2007), The CARIBIC aircraft system for detailed, long-term, global-scale measurement of trace gases and aerosol in a changing atmosphere, Newsl., 37, Int. Global Atmos. Chem., Taipei, Taiwan.
7. Brock, C. A., P. Hamill, J. C. Wilson, H. H. Jonsson, and K. R. Chan (1995), Particle formation in the upper tropical troposphere: A source of nuclei for the stratospheric aerosol, Science, 270, 1650-1653, doi:10.1126/science.270.5242.1650.
8. Chazette, P., C. David, J. Lefrère, S. Godin, J. Pelon, and G. Mégie (1995), Comparative lidar study of the optical, geometrical, and dynamical properties of stratospheric post-volcanic aerosols, following the eruptions of E1 Chichón and Mount Pinatubo, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 23,195-23,207, doi:10.1029/95JD02268.
9. Chen, J. P., G. M. McFarquhar, A. J. Heymsfield, and V. Ramanathan (1997), A modeling and observational study of the detailed microphysical structure of tropical cirrus anvils, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6637-6653, doi:10.1029/96JD03513.
10. Corti, T., et al. (2008), Unprecedented evidence for deep convection hydrating the tropical stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L10810, doi:10.1029/2008GL033641.
11. Deshler, T., R. Anderson-Sprecher, H. Jäger, J. Bames, D. J. Hofmann, B. Clemesha, D. Simonich, M. Osbom, R. G. Grainger, and S. GodinBeekmann (2006), Trends in the nonvolcanic component of stratospheric aerosol over the period 1971-2004, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D01201, doi:10.1029/2005JD006089.
12. Dessler, A. E. (2002), The effect of deep, tropical convection on the tropical tropopause layer, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D3), 4033, doi:10.1029/ 2001JD000511.
13. Femald, F. G. (1984), Analysis of atmospheric lidar observations: Some comments, Appl. Opt., 23, 652-653, doi:10.1364/AO.23.000652.
14. Fujiwara, M., F. Hasebe, M. Shiotani, N. Nishi, H. Vömel, and S. Oltmans (2001), Water vapor control at the tropopause by equatorial kelvin waves observed over the Galápagos, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3143-3146, doi:10.1029/2001GL013310.
15. Garrett, T. J., M. A. Zulauf, and S. K. Krueger (2006), Effects of cirrus near the tropopause on anvil cirrus dynamics, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17804, doi:10.1029/2006GL027071.
16. Gettelman, A., D. J. Seidel, M. C. Wheeler, and R. J. Ross (2002), Multidecadal trends in tropical convective available potential energy, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D2l), 4606, doi:10.1029/2001JD001082.
17. Gettelman, A., D. E. Kinnison, T. J. Dunkerton, and G. P. Brasseur (2004), Impact of monsoon circulations on the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D22101, doi:10.1029/ 2004JD004878.
18. Hanson, D. R., A. R. Ravishankara, and S. Solomon (1994), Heterogeneous reactions in sulfuric acid aerosols: A framework for model calculations, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 3615-3629, doi:10.1029/93JD02932.
19. Haynes, P. H., M. E. McIntyre, T. G. Shepherd, C. J. Marks, and K. P. Shine (1991), On the "downward control" of extratropical diabatic circulations by eddy-induced mean zonal forces, J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 651-678, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1991 )048<0651 :OTCOED>2.0.CO;2.
20. Hermann, M., J. Heintzenberg, A. Wiedensohler, A. Zahn, G. Heinrich, and C. A. M. Brenninkmeijer (2003), Meridional distributions of aerosol particle number concentrations in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere obtained by Civil Aircraft for Regular Investigation of the Atmosphere Based on an Instrument Container (CARIBIC) flights, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D3), 4114, doi:10.1029/2001JD001077.
21. Highwood, E. J., and B. J. Hoskins (1998), The tropical tropopause, Q. J. R. Meteorol Soc, 124, 1579-1604, doi:10.1002/qj.49712454911.
22. Hitchman, M. H., M. Mckay, and C. R. Trepte (1994), A climatology of stratospheric aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 20,689-20,700, doi:10.1029/ 94JD01525.
23. Hofmann, D. J., J. M. Rosen, and T. J. Pepin (1974), Influence of the tropopause height on the global stratospheric aerosol burden and implications for the recent increase in ozone, J. Appl. Meteorol, 13, 734-737, doi:10.1175/1520-0450( 1974)013<0734:IOTTHO>2.0.CO;2.
24. Hofmann, D. J., J. M. Rosen, T. J. Pepin, and R. G. Pinnick (1975), Stratospheric aerosol measurements I: Time variations at northern midlatitudes, J. Atmos. Sci., 32, 1446-1456, doi:10.1175/15200469(1975)032<1446: SAMITV>2.0.CO;2.
25. Holton, J. R., and A. Gettelman (2001), Horizontal transport and the dehydration of the stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 2799-2802, doi:10.1029/2001GL013148.
26. Holton, J. R., P. H. Haynes, M. E. McIntyre, A. R. Douglass, R. B. Rood, and L. Pfister (1995), Stratosphere-troposphere exchange, Rev. Geophys., 33, 403-439, doi:10.1029/95RG02097.
27. Jagannadha Rao, V. V. M., M. Roja Raman, M. Venkat Ratnam, D. Narayana Rao, and S. V. Bhaskara Rao (2007), Onset of Indian summer monsoon over Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E): Study using lower atmospheric wind profiler, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L22803, doi:10.1029/2007GL031592.
28. Jäger, H., T. Deshler, and D. J. Hofmann (1995), Mid-latitude lidar backscatter conversions based on balloonborne aerosol measurements, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 1727-1732.
29. Jain, A. R., Y. J. Rao, A. K. Patra, P. B. Rao, G. Viswanathan, and K. Subramanian (2000), Observations of tropical convection events using Indian MST radar: First results, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 126, 3097-3115, doi:10.1002/qj.49712657006.
30. Junge, C. E., C. W. Changnon, and J. E. Manson (1961), Stratospheric aerosols, J. Meteorol, 18, 81-108.
31. Kent, G. S., C. R. Třepte, and P. L. Lucker (1998), Long-term Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment I and II measurements of upper tropospheric aerosol extinction, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 28,863-28,874, doi:10.1029/ 98JD02583.
32. Khosrawi, F., and P. Konopka (2003), Enhanced particle formation and growth due to mixing processes in the tropopause region, Atmos. Environ., 37(1), 903-910, doi:10.1016/S1352-2310(02)00976-7.
33. Khosrawi, F., R. Müller, M. H. Proffitt, J. Urban, D. Murtagh, R. Ruhnke, J.-U. Grooß, and H. Nakajima (2008), Seasonal cycle of averages of nitrous oxide and ozone in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere polar, midlatitude, and tropical regions derived from ILAS/ILAS-II and Odin/ SMR observations, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D18305, doi:10.1029/ 2007JD009556.
34. Krishna Murthy, B. V. (1987), Troposphere-stratosphere coupling, Indian J. Radio Space Phys., 16, 11-24.
35. Krishnamurthy, V., and J. Shukla (2000), Intraseasonal and interannual variability of rainfall over India, J. Clim., 13, 4366-4377, doi:10.1175/ 1520-0442(2000)013<0001 :IAIVOR>2.0.CO;2.
36. Krishna Murthy, B. V., K. Parameswaran, and K. Rose (1986), Temporal variations of the tropical tropopause characteristics, J. Atmos. Sci, 43, 914-923, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1986)043<0914:TVOTTT> 2.0.CO;2.
37. Krishna Murthy, B. V., K. Parameswaran, K. O. Rose, and M. Satyanarayana (1993), Temperature dependences of stratospheric aerosol extinction at a tropical station, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 55, 809-814, doi:10.1016/00219169(93)90022-Q.
38. Kritz, M. A. (1975), Formation mechanism of the stratospheric aerosol, Ph.D. thesis, Yale Univ., New Haven, Conn.
39. Kulkarni, P., S. Ramachandran, Y Bhavani Kumar, D. Narayana Rao, and M. Krishnaiah (2008), Features of upper troposphere and lower stratosphere aerosols observed by lidar over Gadanki, a tropical Indian station, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D17207, doi:10.1029/2007JD009411.
40. Kumar, K. K. (2006), VHF radar observations of convectively generated gravity waves: Some new insights, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01815, doi: 10.1029/2005GL024109.
41. Lary, D. J., D. E. Shallcross, and R. Toumi (1999), Carbonaceous aerosols and their potential role in atmospheric chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15,929 -15,940, doi: 10.1029/1998JD100091.
42. Li, J., and G. J. Boer (2000), The continuity equation for the stratospheric aerosol and its characteristic curves, J. Atmos. Sci, 57, 442-451, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<0442:TCEFTS>2.0.CO;2.
43. Li, Q., et al. (2005), Convective outflow of south Asian pollution: A global CTM simulation compared with EOS MLS observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14826, doi:10.1029/2005GL022762.
44. Manohar, G., S. Kandalgaonkar, and M. Tinmaker (1999), Thunderstorm activity over India and the Indian southwest monsoon, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 4169-4188, doi:10.1029/98JD02592.
45. Martinsson, B. G., H. N. Nguyen, C. A. M. Brenninkmeijer, A. Zahn, J. Heintzenberg, M. Hermann, and P. F. J. van Velthoven (2005), Characteristics and origin of lowermost stratospheric aerosol at northern mid-latitudes under volcanically quiescent conditions based on CARIBIC observations, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12201, doi:10.1029/ 2004JD005644.
46. McCormick, M. P., and R. E. Veiga (1992), SAGE II measurements of early Pinatubo aerosols, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 155-158, doi:10.1029/ 91GL02790.
47. McFarquhar, G. M., A. J. Heymsfield, J. Pinhime, and B. Hart (2000), Thin and subvisual tropopause tropical cirrus: Observations and radiative impacts, J. Atmos. Sci, 57,1841-1853,doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057< 1841:TASTTC>2.0.CO;2.
48. Minnis, P., E. F. Harrison, L. L. Stowe, G. G. Gibson, F. M. Denn, D. R. Doelling, and W. L. Smith Jr. (1993), Radiative climate forcing by the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption, Science, 259, 1411-1415, doi:10.1126/ science.259.5100.1411.
49. Müller, D., A. Ansmann, I. Mattis, M. Tesche, U. Wandinger, D. Althausen, and G. Pisani (2007), Aerosol-type-dependent lidar ratios observed with Raman lidar, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D16202, doi:10.1029/ 2006JD008292.
50. Murphy, D. M., D. S. Thomson, and M. J. Mahoney (1998), In situ measurements of organics, meteoritic material, mercury and other elements in aerosols at 5 to 19 kilometers, Science, 282, 1664-1668, doi:10.1126/ science.282.5394.1664.
51. Nilsson, E. D., and M. Kulmala (1998), The potential for atmospheric mixing processes to enhance the binary nucleation rate, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 1381-1389, doi:10.1029/97JD02629.
52. Noel, V., D. M. Winker, M. McGill, and P. Lawson (2004), Classification of particle shapes from lidar depolarization ratio in convective ice clouds compared to in situ observations during CRYSTAL-FACE, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D24213, doi:10.1029/2004JD004883.
53. Osborn, M., M. Pitts, K. Powell, and M. McCormick (1990), SAM II aerosol measurements during the 1989 AASE, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 397-400, doi: 10.1029/GLO17i004p00397.
54. Pan, L. L., et al. (2007), Chemical behavior of the tropopause observed during the Stratosphere-Troposphere Analyses of Regional Transport (START) experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D18110, doi:10.1029/ 2007JD008645.
55. Parameswaran, K., K. O. Rose, B. V. Krishna Murthy, M. T. Osborn, and L. R. McMaster (1991), Comparison of aerosol extinction profiles from lidar and SAGE II data at a tropical station, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 10,861 -10,866, doi: 10.1029/91JDO1044.
56. Parameswaran, K., S. V. Sunilkumar, B. V. Krishna Murthy, K. Satheesan, Y Bhavanikumar, M. Krishnaiah, and P. R. Nair (2003), Lidar observations of cirrus cloud near the tropical tropopause: Temporal variations and association with tropospheric turbulence, Atmos. Res., 69, 29-49, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2003.08.002.
57. Park, M., W. J. Randel, D. E. Kinnison, R. R. Garcia, and W. Choi (2004), Seasonal variation of methane, water vapor, and nitrogen oxides near the tropopause: Satellite observations and model simulations, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D03302, doi:10.1029/2003JD003706.
58. Park, M., W. J. Randel, A. Gettelman, S. T. Massie, and J. H. Jiang (2007), Transport above the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone inferred from Aura Microwave Limb Sounder tracers, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D16309, doi: 10.1029/2006JD008294.
59. Pfister, L., et al. (2001), Aircraft observations of thin cirrus clouds near the tropical tropopause, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 9765-9786, doi:10.1029/ 2000JD900648.
60. Raes, F., T. Bates, F. McGovern, and M. Van Liedekerke (2000), The second aerosol characterization experiment (ACE-2), General overview and main results, Tellus, Ser. B, 52(2), 111-125, doi: 10.1034/ j.1600-0889.2000.00124.x.
61. Randel, W. J., and M. Park (2006), Deep convective influence on the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone and associated tracer variability observed with Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS), J. Geophys. Res., III, D12314, doi: 10.1029/2005JD006490.
62. Rao, P. B., A. R. Jain, P. Kishore, P. Balamuralidhar, S. H. Damle, and G. Viswanathan (1995), Indian MST radar 1: System description and sample vector wind measurements in ST mode, Radio Sci, 30, 1125-1138, doi:10.1029/95RS00787.
63. Reed, R. J., and C. L. Vleek (1969), The annual temperature variation in the lower tropical stratosphere, J. Atmos. Sci, 26, 163-167, doi:10.1175/ 1520-0469(1969)026<0163:TATVIT>2.0.CO;2.
64. Reid, G. C., and K. S. Gage (1981), On the annual variation of height of the tropical tropopause, J. Atmos. Sci, 38, 1928-1937, doi:10.1175/ 1520-0469(1981)038<1928:OTAVIH>2.0.CO;2.
65. Reiter, E. R. (1975), Stratospheric-tropospheric exchange processes, Rev. Geophys., 13, 459-474, doi:10.1029/RG013i004p00459.
66. Reiter, E. R., M. E. Glasser, and J. D. Mahlman (1969), The role of the tropopause in the stratospheric-tropospheric exchange process, Pure Appl. Geophys., 75, 185-218, doi:10.1007/BF00875056.
67. Revathy, K., S. R. P. Nair, and B. V. Krishna Murthy (1996), Deduction of temperature profile from MST radar observations of vertical wind, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 285-288, doi:10.1029/96GL00086.
68. Roca, R., and V. Ramanathan (2000), Scale dependence of monsoonal convective systems over the Indian Ocean, J. Clim., 13, 1286-1297, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<1286:SDOMCS>2.0.CO;2.
69. Rosen, J. M., D. J. Hofmann, and S. P. Singh (1978), A steady-state stratospheric aerosol model, J. Atmos. Sci, 35, 1304-1313, doi: 10.1175/15200469(1978)035<1304:ASSSAM>2.0.CO;2.
70. Rosenlof, K. H. (1995), Seasonal cycle of the residual mean meridional circulation in the stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 5173-5192, doi:10.1029/94JD03122.
71. Rosenlof, K. H., and J. R. Holton (1993), Estimates of the stratospheric residual circulation using the downward control principle, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 10,465-10,479, doi: 10.1029/93JD00392.
72. Rosenlof, K. H., A. F. Tuck, K. K. Kelly, J. M. Russell III, and M. P. McCormick (1997), Hemispheric asymmetries in water vapor and inferences about transport in the lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 13,213-13,234, doi:10.1029/97JD00873.
73. Sassen, K. (2000), The lidar backscatter depolarization technique for cloud and aerosol research, in Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles: Theory, Measurements and Geophysical Applications, edited by M. L. Mishenko et al., pp. 393-416, Academic, San Diego, Calif.
74. Sassen, K., and B. S. Cho (1992), Subvisual thin cirrus lidar data set for satellite verification and climatological research, J. Appl. Meteorol., 31, 1275-1285, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1992)031lt;275:STCLDF> 2.0.CO;2.
75. Satheesan, K., and B. V. Krishna Murthy (2005), A study of tropical tropopause using MST radar, Ann. Geophys., 23, 2441-2448.
76. Seidel, D. J., R. J. Ross, J. K. Angell;, and G. C. Reid (2001), Climatological characteristics of the tropical tropopause as revealed by radiosondes, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 7857-7878, doi:10.1029/2000JD900837.
77. Seifert, P., A. Ansmann, D. Müller, U. Wandinger, D. Althausen, A. J. Heymsfield, S. T. Massie, and C. Schmitt (2007), Cirrus optical properties observed with lidar, radiosonde, and satellite over the tropical Indian Ocean during the aerosol-polluted northeast and clean maritime southwest monsoon, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D17205, doi:10.1029/ 2006JD008352.
78. Sherwood, S. C. (2000), A stratospheric "drain" over the maritime continent, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 677-680, doi:10.1029/1999GL010868.
79. Staley, D. (1962), On the mechanism of mass and radioactivity transport from stratosphere to troposphere, J. Atmos. Sci, 19, 450-467, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1962)019<0450:OTMOMA>2.0.CO;2.
80. Stefanutti, L., et al. (2004), The APE-THESEO tropical campaign: An overview, J. Atmos. Chem., 48(1), 1-33, doi:10.1023/B:JOCH. 0000034509.11746.b8.
81. Stohl, A., H. Wemli, P. James, M. Bourqui, C. Forster, M. A. Liniger, P. Seibert, and M. Sprenger (2003), A new perspective of stratospheretroposphere exchange, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 84, 1565-1573, doi:10.1175/BAMS-84-11- 1565.
82. Stull, R. B. (1995), Meteorology Today for Scientists and Engineers, West, Minneapolis/St. Paul. Minn.
83. Sunilkumar, S. V., and K. Parameswaran (2005), Temperature dependence of tropical cirrus properties and radiative effects, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D13205, doi:10.1029/2004JD005426.
84. Sunilkumar, S. V., K. Parameswaran, and B. V. Krishna Murthy (2003), Lidar observations of cirrus cloud near the tropical tropopause: General features, Atmos. Res., 66, 203-227, doi:10.1016/S01698095(02)00159-X.
85. Sunilkumar, S. V., K. Parameswaran, and B. V. Thampi (2008), Interdependence of tropical cirrus properties and their variability, Ann. Geophys., 26, 413-429.
86. Tabazadeh, A., R. P. Turco, and M. Z. Jacobson (1994), A model for studying the composition and chemical effects of stratospheric aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12,897-12,914, doi:10.1029/94JD00820.
87. Thomason, L. W, and T. Peter (Eds.) (2006), Assessment of stratospheric aerosol properties (ASAP), SPARC Rep. 4, World Clim. Res. Program, Geneva.
88. Thomason, L. W., G. S. Kent, C. R. Trepte, and L. R. Poole (1997), A comparison of the stratospheric aerosol background periods of 1979 and 1989-1991, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 3611-3616, doi:10.1029/ 96JD02960.
89. Thomason, L. W., S. P. Burton, B. P. Luo, and T. Peter (2008), SAGE II measurements of stratospheric aerosol properties at non-volcanic levels, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 983-995.
90. Toon, O. B., R. P. Turco, P. Hamill, C. S. Kiang, and R. C. Whitten (1979), A one-dimensional model describing aerosol formation and evolution in the stratosphere: II. Sensitivity studies and comparison with observations, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 718-736, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1979)036<0718: AODMDA>2.0.CO;2.
91. Trepte, C. R., and M. H. Hitchman (1992), Tropical stratospheric circulation deduced from satellite aerosol data, Nature, 355, 626-628, doi:10.1038/355626a0.
92. Turco, R. P., P. Hamill, O. B. Toon, R. C. Whitten, and C. S. Kiang (1979), A one-dimensional model describing aerosol formation and evolution in the stratosphere: I. Physical processes and mathematical analogs, J. Atmos. Sci, 36, 699-717, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1979)036<0699: AODMDA>2.0.CO;2.
93. Twohy, C. H., et al. (2002), Deep convection as a source of new particles in the midlatitude upper troposphere, J. Geophys. Res., 707(D21), 4560, doi:10.1029/2001JD000323.
94. Weisenstein, D. K., G. K. Yue, M. K. W. Ko, N,-D. Sze, J. M. Rodriguez, and C. J. Scott (1997), A two-dimensional model of sulfur species and aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 13,019-13,053, doi:10.1029/ 97JD00901.
95. Winker, D., and M. Osborn (1992), Airborne lidar observations of the Pinatubo volcanic plume, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 167-170, doi: 10.1029/91GL02867.
96. Wong, S., and A. E. Dessler (2007), Regulation Of H2O and CO in tropical tropopause layer by the Madden-Julian oscillation, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D14305, doi:10.1029/2006JD007940.
97. Yue, G. K., M. P. McCormick, and E. W. Chiou (1991), Stratospheric aerosol optical depth observed by the SAGE II experiment: Decay of the El Chichon and Ruiz volcanic perturbations, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 5209 - 5219, doi: 10.1029/90JD02227.
98. Yulaeva, E., J. R. Holton, and J. M. Wallace (1994), On the cause of the annual cycle in tropical lower stratospheric temperatures, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 169-174, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1994)05K0169:OTCOTA> 2.0.CO;2.